2.1. Study type

The present research was conducted through a qualitative approach, which, according to Vega-Malagón [28], is based on data collection methods without numerical measurement, such as description and observation of the phenomenon. The authors also assert that the process is flexible and moves between events and their interpretation. Additionally, it relies on a logical and inductive process to explore, describe, and generate theoretical perspectives by evaluating the natural development of events without manipulation or stimulation of reality [7].

On the other hand, the applied analysis technique is documentary analysis, which is a form of technical research. It involves a set of intellectual operations aimed at describing and representing documents in a unified and systematic manner to facilitate their retrieval and interpretation [29]. Martinez-Corona and Palacios-Almon [30] consider documentary analysis as a recognized scientific procedure characterized by a systematic process to investigate, collect, organize, analyze, and interpret information related to a research topic in the context of documentary research.

2.2. Data collection instrument and analysis categories

The instrument for gathering information was documentary recording. This refers to the set of strategies and methods for retrieving information documented in physical or digital documents, which, through certain tools, enable the consultation of the sources from which information is obtained [31]. The collected information possesses the characteristic of contributing to answering the central questions of the study, as outlined in Table 1.

2.3. Documentary analysis procedure and document selection criteria

The present study revolved around the subject of study called the productivity of enterprises. Therefore, this work allowed the search, retrieval, and analysis of documentary sources using fixation techniques, data localization, and content analysis guided by logical procedures for this type of research, such as reading, synthesis, and deduction [32].

In the documentary record, initially, it contains excerpts (verbatim quotes) from articles in indexed journals. Subsequently, if deemed necessary, it is supplemented with academic books and other documents that contribute to the study topic. This way, the consolidation of documents serves as a strategy to carry out the analysis of documents with the aim of systematizing, building, and communicating concepts and theories of high academic relevance based on established categories [33].

In this context, based on the proposal by Martinez-Corona and Palacios-Almon [30], the development of the present study will deepen the understanding of the subject of study and contribute elements for future research studies to be conducted with scientific rigor, thus obtaining relevant and quality results. Consequently, the procedure proposed by the same authors, which also represents the document selection criteria, was developed, consisting of four phases:

1. Documents such as scientific articles, books, or book chapters were located in databases such as WoS, Science Direct, Scielo, Redalyc, Scopus, Latindex, and Google Scholar.

2. A combination of essential and complementary keywords was used.

3. The time range for document search was determined, considering updated information from the year 2019. Only in exceptional cases and considering the document's relevance were elements from previous years considered for inclusion.

4. Documents addressing at least one category determined for the study, considering one or more elements, were integrated into the analysis.

5. The selected articles are written in Spanish or English.

2.4. Analyzed documents (sample)

To integrate the analysis of the categories, searches were conducted in scientific databases using the following keywords: "productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness", "productivity factors", "techniques and tools of productivity", "case studies on productivity" and "productivity and human talent." Once located, the documentary record was compiled. Out of a total of 120 located documents, in the screening process under the selection criteria, a total of 27 documents were included as the unit of analysis, which are summarized in Table 2.

Category 1: Concepts of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, and competitiveness in enterprises

To initiate the study on enterprises’ productivity, some concepts of great importance will be defined. Thus, Gómez-Gómez [4] indicates that efficiency is related to the intelligent management and use of available resources, avoiding waste, and contributing to the generation of value. In this sense, it involves using the few or many available resources opportunistically and appropriately; that is, when needed and for what they are needed. On the other hand, effectiveness is understood as the achievement of objectives, which can be attained regardless of the resources used, sometimes at any cost, whether for customer satisfaction, achieving production goals, and/or meeting sales quotas. Under the author's logic, it can be inferred that a concept of productivity not widely explored is as follows: achieving objectives with the intelligent use of resources or, in other words, productivity is being both efficient and effective simultaneously. In other words, efficiency and effectiveness are two interdependent concepts that, when managed together and interrelated, result in what is known as productivity.

In another context, it is known that a large number of enterprises have ceased to be competitive due to low productivity, often linked to inefficient process management, failures in information traceability, and processes that hinder the functioning of the enterprise. This scenario has created the need for enterprises to achieve a global change in their processes, aligning them based on market demands through the application of radical improvement methodologies. This involves Process Reengineering, seeking to restructure enterprises to achieve more effective results [34]. Consequently, the alternative to sustain competitiveness in enterprises is through productivity. This concept relates to the production of goods and services in relation to resources used, such as labor, materials, energy, machinery, or other factors [3].

Additionally, it is relevant to consider that, according to Momeni and Ni [35], quality and productivity are key factors after a crisis to gain competitive advantages and economic recovery. Therefore, economic development is currently reflected in an enterprise success; hence, the planning of any process is closely related to the productivity with which progress is made. When discussing productivity, it encompasses both elements and activities that come together to achieve a single result. The authors mention that improvements in measuring productivity are reflected in the fact that, with the use of fewer resources and/or activities, better results can be obtained [36].

Category 2: Variables or factors affecting productivity in enterprises

The globalization of markets has led enterprises to make constant decisions aimed at improving their competitiveness in uncertain environments. This pursuit typically focuses on reducing costs and increasing quality. The latter is reflected in the product and delivery times, especially because enterprises seek to enhance their processes, including the production process and its planning. Hence, the Master Production Schedule (MPS) involves establishing organizational decisions in advance to optimize the use of resources within a timeframe convenient for the enterprise. Simultaneously, it determines the quantities and dates at which the enterprise’s distribution inventories should be available.

In this regard, the MPS is only concerned with products and components subject to external demand from the production unit, while Material Requirement Planning (MRP) is a detailed plan specifying the specific quantity and exact dates of product manufacturing, considering the foundations for shipping times and delivery to the customer. This contributes to achieving the enterprise’s strategic objectives and resolves negotiations between manufacturing and marketing by effectively utilizing plant capacity [37].

Quijia-Pillajo [26] indicate that an analysis of the determinants of productivity in Ecuador shows that the characteristics of enterprises that most significantly drive productivity are: trained human capital, relationships with other enterprises through a business group, commercial openness through exports, and foreign capital investment. These factors generate productivity benefits such as increased availability of intermediate goods, access to new technologies, technical consultancy, and knowledge dissemination. Therefore, to boost the productivity of enterprises based on these results, it is recommended that they focus on incorporating employees with high levels of education. This is because such personnel possess a broader knowledge domain that would influence productivity. Additionally, fostering interaction between enterprises in any form, whether through exports or alliances, is crucial to generate new knowledge and innovation.

Under this argument, Agudelo-Orrego and Escobar-Valencia [27] mention that when descriptively analyzing the variables with the most significant impact on labor productivity, both managers and employees agree that job satisfaction is crucial. Therefore, it is important to clearly define tasks and distribute them according to the capabilities of the collaborators. Another important factor is teamwork/cohesion, which should be encouraged through cooperation and the clear definition of objectives to be achieved. Similarly, organizational climate plays a significant role, promoting the establishment of a positive work environment represented by feedback, communication, and integration. On the other hand, the dimensions with less impact on labor productivity are competencies and employee participation.

Now, according to Uemura [38], when discussing productivity with workers and plant managers, mentions efficiency given the current workspace considered as a (active) production asset. It is desirable to save not only processing time but also workspace to improve asset efficiency. Particularly, when there is a significant difference in orders due to the season, and sales during the peak season must cover fixed costs during the off-season, it is necessary to maximize asset productivity during the peak season. From this perspective, the effective use of space is an important issue because not only can the process time be shortened by consolidating excess space and shortening the production line, but also, if another production equipment can be placed in the vacant space, the production volume will increase dramatically.

Category 3: Techniques and tools for productivity in enterprises

The modern state of the global economy shows that a nation cannot proceed in isolation. For effective development, there must be a connection between the economies of different nations. This interconnected global economy has led to strong competition among industries. Because of this, ensuring quality, cost, and production technology has become crucial. This is where the concept of lean manufacturing seems to be suitable [39].

Under this reasoning, when considering the objectives pursued by the enterprise, the most suitable tools for this strategy can be selected. These actions, accompanied by other methodologies such as job standardization and other tools, not only impact the improvement of the manufacturing process but also generate a better understanding of the process by both technical staff and factory workers [40].

To achieve an increase in competitiveness, enterprises can choose different innovative management strategies that help improve various parameters of this function. One such strategy that has been proven with favorable results worldwide is lean manufacturing [41]. Additionally, industrial enterprises currently face the challenge of identifying and implementing new organizational and production techniques that allow them to compete in a global market. Thus, the lean manufacturing model has become an alternative to increase productivity and develop manufacturing competencies that impact competitiveness. However, the effect that each of the lean manufacturing tools contributes to achieving productivity is unknown [10].

In this sense, lean manufacturing becomes a strategic tool that involves all areas of an enterprise, not only due to its various applications within an organization but also because it has the potential for application in any type of enterprise; moreover, it can be adjusted to different scenarios with excellent results. This was demonstrated in a project through the review of various lean tools that can be applied in Occupational Safety and Health and simultaneously impact process optimization [42].

The above becomes relevant since the manufacturing industry in Mexico is a key element for the country's development. This is considering that, in a highly competitive environment, enterprises seek to offer more and better services at attractive prices to customers without affecting their profits. One strategy to achieve this is to minimize production costs through process standardization, as it reduces failures, waste, and increases productivity [24].

In this regard, manufacturing enterprises implement lean manufacturing tools to maintain their competitiveness against competitors by improving the productivity of the system. It is noteworthy that Value Stream Mapping (VSM) is a fundamental tool for implementing the lean approach and can be used in many sectors of the industry [19].

As cited in Sosa-Solano and Zeña-Ramos [36], they report the analyses and tests conducted in an enterprise where the aim was to improve the productivity of the working area using the lean manufacturing concept. The authors identified the main problems affecting productivity in the production area of the product. The authors used time studies during the evaluation, yielding data that showed a significant improvement in production and product realization after the application of lean manufacturing, along with a reduction in process time.

In this context, lean manufacturing is a method that focuses on organizational improvement; thus, applying it in the enterprise will eliminate any activity or input that hinders productivity. In addition, it provides feasible solutions that focus on the growth of the enterprise [36].

Finally, lean manufacturing improves the quality and productivity of the product, minimizes taks time, manufacturing waste and inventory, and eliminates activities that do not add value [43].

Category 4: Case studies on productivity in enterprises

An example of the consequences of not having measures to ensure quality and productivity can be found in the scientific literature. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that, according to Flores-Meza [6], there is a significant percentage of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the Peruvian textile market that incur economic losses due to penalties paid to customers, mainly related to delays in delivering order batches. The authors argue that this is due to poor production management and a lack of focus. It is also important to note that the manufacturing sector is crucial for its substantial contribution to the country's gross domestic product. This is because SMEs do not employ methodologies to improve production and process management, as they are unaware of the importance and necessity of such methodologies, as well as how complex they can be. Thus, these models will help enterprises avoid incurring economic losses due to penalties for orders not delivered on time.

The authors propose a model, and to validate it, a time simulation was conducted in the manufacturing area of the mentioned textile enterprise. In particular, the Lean Production Management Model integrates knowledge and change management along with 5S and Kanban techniques to achieve better implementation results. It is essential to consider the human factor as a primary factor for success.

Now, in the competitive, dynamic, and changing environment in which enterprises operate today, new challenges are posed to grow and sustain over time. Therefore, aspects such as customer satisfaction, innovation, and social responsibility are increasingly used objectives by enterprises. However, elements like quality and productivity continue to be critical factors in the sustainability of the business. To achieve this, enterprises must use methodologies and tools to diagnose their processes, identify critical points, and invest in strategies that optimize the operations of their value chain, the use of their resources, and the quality of their products. All with the aim of consistently exceeding customer expectations and achieving differentiation in the market [25].

In this sense, the use of tools from the Toyota Production System, also known as Lean Manufacturing, plays a fundamental role in eliminating waste and continuously improving industrial production levels. It can also be implemented in various sectors of the enterprise, as well as in any industry area, enabling continuous improvement of production processes [44].

Related to the above, it is asserted that lean is recognized as one of the most effective methodologies for improving production processes. This can be observed in a study in the packaging labeling sector [45]. Where the idea of optimizing first and then automating is followed. This approach contributed to the following: reduced operation times, increased production rates, and better use of human resources. From this perspective, it is an improvement method through which production problems and methods of operation are examined to find a solution that ensures quality and greater efficiency; with this approach, there is a constant search to use fewer resources.

Another case is proposed by Veres [46], aiming to help enterprises take the initial steps in the lean implementation project. A conceptual model was developed to simplify the process and define specific steps to follow. The four phases are: Planning, Training, Development, and Coaching. The model was tested in the healthcare environment, in the Romanian public sector, and the results showed increased productivity, improved employee workplace perception, reduced time loss, reduced movement, and other enhancements.

It is important to mention that Juan de Dios-Pando [17] state that organizations tend to generate the need to implement lean manufacturing tools (TPM, 5S, SMED, Kanban, Heijunka, among others); these tools are useful for competing and excelling efficiently in their industry. In the authors' study, it is revealed that lean manufacturing is essential in the footwear industry because it consists of a set of tools that help eliminate all signs of waste in the production system with the aim of optimizing the enterprise's profits, product quality, and meeting customer needs and demands.

In another study, the practice of the 5S principles in the manufacturing of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has been widely discussed in scientific studies related to critical success factors (CSF) and challenges for improving organizational performance. The importance of performance measurement for sustaining 5S becomes a strategic value in the improvement process and waste elimination [47].

In this context, there are several examples of successful lean practices in manufacturing and service; to reduce costs, achieve quality, and increase competitiveness. However, some enterprises still do not adopt lean practice. Lean practices are not just about implementing tools but also about developing people and transforming the enterprise culture [23].

Category 5: Productivity and human talent

The independent variables, climate, and job satisfaction, although two distinct topics, are related. The former refers to the attributes of the entity, while the latter focuses on the attitudes of its workers in their job [48]. In relation to these variables, it is considered that they are subdivided into the dimensions of leadership and motivation for work climate, while commitment is related to job satisfaction [49].

Therefore, for Ramírez-Torres [50], it is of utmost importance to invest in intellectual capital through knowledge management to increase productivity, competitiveness, and the overall capacity of the enterprise to perform in context. Thus, managerial management in the current globalization framework implies a high level of adaptation to changes for enterprises, in addition to planning, direction, coordination, and control in resource management to enhance their competitive capabilities. Hence, it is important to enhance human behavior at work, increasing people's ability to be efficient and effective by incorporating and/or appropriating the philosophy, values, and corporate culture of the enterprises. This aims to raise awareness of occupational activity with a socially responsible sense concerning learning, goal achievement based on assigned functions, relationships, and interpersonal and professional growth, among others.

In addition to the above, it is mentioned that there are enterprises that consider human talent a fundamental part of the organization and, therefore, focus on providing workers with training in social areas relevant to their work. This approach aims to create a trustful environment with appropriate instructions for their employment, allowing them to contribute maximally to the enterprise. This leads to the conclusion that the productivity of human talent goes hand in hand with training, as it can have a positive impact on workers, making them more committed to their work. In this way, they navigate smoothly within their workspace without any issues and feel motivated by the effort the enterprise puts into creating an environment of trust, providing suitable knowledge to achieve short and long-term objectives set by the enterprise as a whole [51].

In light of all the above, [52] warns that enterprises should invest and develop in the following areas: research and development (R&D) processes, topics related to human capital, managerial skills, the application of ICTs, healthy virtual workspaces, hybrid work (in-person and virtual), technical competencies, emotional salary, professional development plans within the enterprise, friendly physical and operational infrastructures, social responsibility, creativity and innovation, added value to the job position, motivational leadership, emotional intelligence, among other topics. It is also crucial to observe their impact on personal and team performance. Therefore, it is essential for enterprises to genuinely and comprehensively link the human component of collaborators in the administrative and strategic management of the business as a key success factor. This is driven by the vigor, effort, intellect, ability, and attitude that only the workforce of people can make possible in relation to all the mission processes of enterprises.