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   <front>
      <journal-meta>
         <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rcq</journal-id>
         <journal-title-group>
            <journal-title>Revista Colombiana de Química</journal-title>
            <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev.Colomb.Quim.</abbrev-journal-title>
         </journal-title-group>
         <issn pub-type="ppub">0120-2804</issn>
         <issn pub-type="epub">2357-3791</issn>
         <publisher>
            <publisher-name>Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de Colombia.</publisher-name>
         </publisher>
      </journal-meta>
      <article-meta>
         <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15446/rev.colomb.quim.v51n3.106796</article-id>
         <article-categories>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
               <subject>Artículos originales de investigación</subject>
            </subj-group>
         </article-categories>
         <title-group>
            <article-title>Análisis de la mezcla de alcoholes en motor diésel</article-title>
            <trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
               <trans-title>Analysis of alcohol mixture in diesel engine</trans-title>
            </trans-title-group>
            <trans-title-group xml:lang="pt">
               <trans-title>Análise da mistura de álcoois em motores diesel</trans-title>
            </trans-title-group>
         </title-group>
         <contrib-group>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Riojas-González</surname>
                  <given-names>Héctor-Hugo</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
                  <sup>1</sup>
               </xref>
               <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">
                  <sup>*</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Reta-Heredia</surname>
                  <given-names>Indira</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
                  <sup>1</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Bortoni-Anzures</surname>
                  <given-names>Liborio-Jesús</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
                  <sup>1</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Martínez-Torres</surname>
                  <given-names>Juan-Julián</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
                  <sup>1</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <aff id="aff1">
               <label>1</label>
               <institution content-type="original"> Universidad Politécnica de Victoria. México, Ciudad Victoria. </institution>
               <institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Politécnica de Victoria</institution>
               <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Politécnica de Victoria</institution>
               <addr-line>
                  <city>Ciudad Victoria</city>
               </addr-line>
               <country country="MX">Mexico</country>
            </aff>
         </contrib-group>
         <author-notes>
            <corresp id="c1">
               <label>
                  <sup>*</sup>
               </label> Autor de correspondencia: hriojasg@upv.edu.mx </corresp>
         </author-notes>
         <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
            <day>12</day>
            <month>01</month>
            <year>2024</year>
         </pub-date>
         <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
            <season>Sep-Dec</season>
            <year>2022</year>
         </pub-date>
         <volume>51</volume>
         <issue>3</issue>
         <fpage>34</fpage>
         <lpage>44</lpage>
         <history>
            <date date-type="received">
               <day>17</day>
               <month>01</month>
               <year>2023</year>
            </date>
            <date date-type="rev-recd">
               <day>24</day>
               <month>02</month>
               <year>2023</year>
            </date>
            <date date-type="accepted">
               <day>23</day>
               <month>03</month>
               <year>2023</year>
            </date>
         </history>
         <permissions>
            <license xml:lang="es" license-type="open-access"
                     xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
               <license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
            </license>
         </permissions>
         <abstract>
            <title>Resumen</title>
            <p>Debido a que el futuro del petróleo es incierto, en la búsqueda de los combustibles alternativos se ha encontrado que el alcohol es un fuerte candidato como combustible; los alcoholes inferiores más representativos son el metanol y el etanol, los cuales han demostrado en general baja miscibilidad, por lo que pueden generar una separación de fases al ser mezclados después de un cierto tiempo. La única manera de emplearlos en un motor diésel es mezclándolos con biodiésel o con surfactantes. Por el contrario, los alcoholes superiores tienen características más adecuadas para ser mezclados o empleados en el motor diésel. Por su parte, los éteres son una buena opción cuando se trate de combustión piloto en que se considere emplear combustibles gaseosos como el biogás o el syngas en motor diésel dual. En esta investigación se exploran las alternativas que existen para mejorar las características del alcohol, por ejemplo, mezclarlo con biodiésel, biogás, agua o nanopartículas, y también se analizan las emisiones que se producen con las mezclas generadas. El objetivo es indagar las diferencias entre los alcoholes inferiores y los alcoholes superiores de cadena larga, así como las mezclas que se pueden generar para mejorar el rendimiento del motor. Los resultados afirman que los alcoholes de cadena larga tienen mejores propiedades físico-químicas que los alcoholes de cadena corta; el butanol es el único combustible que puede ser transportado y almacenado en las mismas redes de tuberías actuales de los productos petroleros existentes. También se cuenta con la opción de usar el alcohol como combustible piloto en un motor diésel dual; esto puede servir para aplicar una enorme variedad de combustibles tanto líquidos como gaseosos, lo cual hace que las opciones en su aplicación se incrementen. Como conclusión, se recomienda explorar nuevas mezclas analizando sus sinergias con varios combustibles alternativos. La posibilidad de realizar el diesterol-BED genera resultados muy alentadores, por lo que se recomienda seguir haciendo análisis sobre esa línea para encontrar la mezcla óptima.</p>
         </abstract>
         <trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
            <title>Abstract</title>
            <p>As the future of oil is uncertain and in the search for alternative fuels, it has been found that alcohol is a strong candidate as a fuel. The most representative lower alcohols are methanol and ethanol, which have generally demonstrated low miscibility so that they can generate phase separation when mixed after a certain period of time. The only way to use them in a diesel engine is to mix them with biodiesel or surfactants. By contrast, higher alcohols have more suitable characteristics to be mixed or used in the diesel engine. In the case of ethers they are a good option when it comes to pilot combustion considering using gaseous fuels such as biogas or syngas in dual diesel engine. This research explores the alternatives that exist to improve the characteristics of alcohol as it can be mixed with biodiesel, biogas, water or nanoparticles and also analyzes the emissions that are generated with the mixtures. The aim of this research is to explore the differences between lower alcohols and long chain upper alcohols, as well as the mixtures that can be generated to improve engine performance. The results of this research claim that long-chain alcohols have better physico-chemical properties than short-chain alcohols, butanol being the only fuel that can be transported and stored in the same current pipeline networks of existing oil products. There is also the option to use alcohol as a pilot fuel in a dual diesel engine. The latter can be used to apply a huge variety of both liquid and gaseous fuels, this makes the options in its application increase. As a conclusion of this work, it is recommended to explore new mixtures analyzing their synergies with various alternative fuels. The possibility of performing diesterol-BED generates very encouraging results, therefore it is recommended to continue to perform analyses on that line to find the optimal mixture.</p>
         </trans-abstract>
         <trans-abstract xml:lang="pt">
            <title>Resumo</title>
            <p>Na busca por combustíveis alternativos porque o futuro do petróleo é incerto, verificou-se que o álcool é um forte candidato como combustível, onde os álcoois inferiores mais representativos são o metanol e o etanol, que, em geral, demonstraram baixa miscibilidade, de modo que podem gerar separação de fase quando misturadas após um determinado período de tempo, a única forma de as utilizar num motor diesel é misturá-las com biodiesel ou tensioactivos, pelo contrário, os álcoois superiores têm características mais adequadas para serem misturados ou utilizados no motor diesel, no caso dos éteres, são uma boa opção quando se trata de combustão piloto, considerando a utilização de combustíveis gasosos, como biogás ou gás de síntese em motores a diesel duplos, esta pesquisa explora as várias alternativas que existem para melhorar as características do álcool, pois pode ser misturado com biodiesel, biogás, água ou nanopartículas e também analisa as emissões que são geradas com as misturas geradas, O objetivo desta pesquisa é explorar as diferenças entre álcoois inferiores e álcoois superiores de cadeia longa, bem como as misturas que podem ser geradas para melhorar o desempenho do motor. Os resultados desta pesquisa afirmam que os álcoois de cadeia longa têm melhores propriedades físico-químicas do que os álcoois de cadeia curta, sendo o butanol o único combustível que pode ser transportado e armazenado nas mesmas redes de gasodutos atuais que os produtos petrolíferos existentes, há também a opção de usar álcool como combustível piloto em um motor diesel duplo, Este último pode ser usado para aplicar uma enorme variedade de combustíveis líquidos e gasosos, o que aumenta as opções em sua aplicação. Como conclusão deste trabalho recomenda-se explorar novas misturas analisando suas sinergias com vários combustíveis alternativos, a possibilidade de realizar diesterol-BED gera resultados muito encorajadores, portanto, recomenda-se continuar a realizar análises nessa linha para encontrar a mistura ideal.</p>
         </trans-abstract>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="es">
            <title>Palabras clave:</title>
            <kwd>alcohol</kwd>
            <kwd>motor diésel</kwd>
            <kwd>energía renovable</kwd>
            <kwd>biocombustible</kwd>
         </kwd-group>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
            <title>Keywords:</title>
            <kwd>Alcohol</kwd>
            <kwd>diesel engine</kwd>
            <kwd>renewable energy</kwd>
            <kwd>biofuel</kwd>
         </kwd-group>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
            <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
            <kwd>Álcool</kwd>
            <kwd>diesel</kwd>
            <kwd>energia renovável</kwd>
            <kwd>biocombustíveis</kwd>
         </kwd-group>
         <counts>
            <fig-count count="4"/>
            <table-count count="10"/>
            <equation-count count="0"/>
            <ref-count count="109"/>
            <page-count count="11"/>
         </counts>
      </article-meta>
   </front>
   <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
         <title>Introducción</title>
         <p>En el futuro los productos del petróleo serán escasos y costosos, y si se tiene en cuenta la contaminación que estos generan, representan una amenaza para el medio ambiente. Para superar esto, se buscan combustibles alternativos <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">
               <sup>1</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. La biomasa proporciona aproximadamente el 13% del suministro mundial de energía primaria y más del 75% de la energía renovable mundial. De hecho, se estima que la bioenergía podría contribuir con entre 25 y 33% del suministro mundial de energía para el 2050 <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">
               <sup>2</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Los biocombustibles no son de ninguna manera una tecnología emergente: a finales del siglo XIX ya se usaban lámparas de etanol <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">
               <sup>3</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>; posteriormente, los vehículos que solo tenían como combustible etanol eran muy populares en la década de 1980, pero se volvieron económicamente imprácticos cuando los precios del petróleo cayeron y los precios del azúcar aumentaron a finales de esa década <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">
               <sup>4</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Entre los alcoholes más estudiados se encuentran etanol, butanol, metanol, aceite de fusel y los ésteres MTBE (éter metil tert-butílico) y DME (dimetil éter) aplicados como combustible en los motores <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">
               <sup>5</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Las mezclas alcohol-diésel pueden ser una solución prometedora como combustibles más limpios, debido a que pueden mejorar la combustión y generar temperaturas más bajas en el motor <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">
               <sup>6</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Otros autores recomiendan la adición de H<sub>2</sub> (hidrógeno) a la mezcla de alcoholes <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">
               <sup>7</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>; también se han definido algunas mezclas como la del diésel-biodiésel-etanol con un nuevo término: diesterol <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">
               <sup>8</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>.</p>
         <p>En este estudio se presenta un análisis sobre las alternativas que existen para mejorar las características del alcohol, y con esto hacerlo más atractivo como biocombustible, por lo que se analizan las propiedades y el rendimiento de los alcoholes superiores y los alcoholes inferiores de cadena corta, y también se analiza la posibilidad de realizar mezclas con diferentes sustancias tratando de encontrar la mezcla óptima.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <title>Propiedades físico-químicas de alcoholes y éteres</title>
         <p>Aunque existen numerosas tecnologías de conversión, las propiedades de los combustibles varían significativamente. Incluso cuando se utiliza la misma materia prima <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">
               <sup>9</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>, la variación de la composición química, tal como la longitud de la cadena de carbono y el grado de saturación/insaturación, cambia las propiedades físico-químicas del combustible <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">
               <sup>10</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. El alcohol tiene una estabilidad a la oxidación superior y fluidez a baja temperatura en comparación con el biodiésel. Por lo tanto, los alcoholes tienen mejores características de manejo de combustible para el uso del motor en comparación con el biodiésel <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
               <sup>11</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Desafortunadamente, también los alcoholes tienen sus desventajas fisicoquímicas; estas se presentan en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabla 1</xref>.</p>
         <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1">
               <label>Tabla 1</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Desventajas en las propiedades fisicoquímicas del alcohol en motores.</title>
               </caption>
               <graphic xlink:href="v51n3a04image001.png"/>
            </table-wrap>
         </p>
         <sec>
            <title>Alcoholes inferiores de cadena corta</title>
            <p>Los alcoholes inferiores más representativos y usados son el metanol y el etanol <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">
                  <sup>15</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Los alcoholes de cadena corta en el motor diésel tienen propiedades pobres, tales como el índice de cetano inferior, valor calorífico y viscosidad cinemática <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">
                  <sup>16</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>; también han demostrado baja miscibilidad y realizan separaciones de fases después de cierto tiempo <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">
                  <sup>17</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El etanol es de difícil autoignición y no genera liberación de calor a baja temperatura <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">
                  <sup>18</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>; además tiene poca o nula liberación de calor a temperatura intermedia, y con la presencia de agua el etanol es más difícil de iniciar <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">
                  <sup>19</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El etanol puede reducir la temperatura del gas en el cilindro y proporciona una zona de enfriamiento más grande, lo que lleva a una mayor emisión de CO (monóxido de carbono) <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                  <sup>20</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Debido a la capacidad de generar combustión completa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), el bioetanol tiene el potencial de aumentar la eficiencia de combustión <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">
                  <sup>21</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> y con esto reducir la emisión de HC (hidrocarburos no quemados) <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                  <sup>20</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El etanol tiene un alto calor de vaporización; por lo tanto, reduce la temperatura máxima dentro del cilindro y esto hace reducir los NOx (óxidos de nitrógeno), lo que aumenta la potencia del motor <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">
                  <sup>7</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El metanol tiene un alto número de octanaje, alta velocidad laminar de la llama, amplio límite de inflamabilidad y alto calor latente de vaporización <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">
                  <sup>22</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El metanol es tóxico, líquido, sin sabor, incoloro y generalmente se conoce como alcohol de madera. Su estructura química simple puede conducir a menores emisiones y una mejor combustión <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">
                  <sup>13</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>.</p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f1">
                  <label>Figura 1</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Inyección del alcohol en motor CI. a) Inyección de alcohol, b) inyección directa diésel, c) sensor de presión, d) escape. (Elaboración propia).</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="v51n3a04image002.png"/>
               </fig>
            </p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Alcoholes superiores de cadena larga</title>
            <p>Recientemente, los investigadores han demostrado mayor interés en los alcoholes de cadena larga, ya que tienen mejores propiedades físico-químicas que los alcoholes de cadena corta <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">
                  <sup>17</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. A medida que aumenta el número de carbonos en la estructura química de los alcoholes, las propiedades básicas del combustible también mejoran; por ejemplo, la capacidad de disolverse, la baja polaridad y la naturaleza menos higroscópica hacen que la mezcla sea muy fácil con diésel y biodiésel; se evita así separación de fases <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">
                  <sup>23</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> y se logra un menor retardo de encendido <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">
                  <sup>24</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Además, tienen mayor valor calorífico, mayor volatilidad, menos problemas de ignición, solubilidad, mayor viscosidad, no presentan problemas de separación de fases y cuentan con mejores propiedades de flujo en frío. Además de una mejor estabilidad de mezcla y alta densidad, tiene también mejor lubricidad y menor riesgo de corrosión <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">
                  <sup>25</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Por estas razones se sugieren los alcoholes altos en carbono para los motores diésel <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">
                  <sup>26</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El uso del butanol tiene ventajas, ya que es el único combustible a base de alcohol que puede ser transportado fácilmente por las redes de tuberías de productos petroleros existentes, en lugar de transportarse únicamente en camiones con cisternas y vagones de ferrocarril <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">
                  <sup>27</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabla 2</xref> se muestran las ventajas del butanol.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t2">
                  <label>Tabla 2</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Ventajas del butanol sobre el etanol y el metanol.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Ventaja del butanol</th>
                           <th align="center">Beneficio</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mejor miscibilidad con el combustible diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">Mezcla con diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">
                                 <sup>28</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]-[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                                 <sup>32</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                                 <sup>20</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menor calor de evaporización</td>
                           <td align="center">Menor pérdida</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">
                                 <sup>28</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">
                                 <sup>31</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                                 <sup>20</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mayor valor calorífico</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                                 <sup>20</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">
                                 <sup>21</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">
                                 <sup>31</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">No tiene separación de fases</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor mezcla</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                                 <sup>32</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menor consumo de combustible</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                                 <sup>11</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mejor estabilidad de mezcla</td>
                           <td align="center">El sistema de inyección mejora y protege al motor</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                                 <sup>11</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">
                                 <sup>29</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">
                                 <sup>30</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Genera menor temperatura de autoignición</td>
                           <td align="center">Es más fácil de aplicar al motor</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                                 <sup>11</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">
                                 <sup>28</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menor corrosión</td>
                           <td align="center">Más durabilidad en las partes del motor</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">
                                 <sup>29</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">
                                 <sup>30</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                                 <sup>33</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mejor arranque del motor</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora arranque en climas fríos</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">
                                 <sup>28</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">No es higroscópico</td>
                           <td align="center">No absorbe el agua</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                                 <sup>32</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Tiene el doble de átomos de carbono que el etanol</td>
                           <td align="center">Incrementa el valor calorífico</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                                 <sup>33</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Tiene mayor densidad que el etanol</td>
                           <td align="center">Reduce el consumo de combustible y mejora el rendimiento</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                                 <sup>33</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Se pueden usar mezclas más magras</td>
                           <td align="center">Reduce emisiones</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                                 <sup>33</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mejora la mezcla</td>
                           <td align="center">Ofrece mejor rendimiento en el motor</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">
                                 <sup>21</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menos toxico y mejor solubilidad</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor uso en mezcla con diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">
                                 <sup>28</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mayor viscosidad y lubricidad</td>
                           <td align="center">Protege el motor y evita el desgaste</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">
                                 <sup>28</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>El inconveniente de usar el butanol es que puede generar un incremento del BSFC (el consumo de combustible específico del freno), pero al mismo tiempo puede lograr disminuir las emisiones de CO, NOx y humo, pero con una reducción de BTE (eficiencia térmica del freno) y con un aumento de las emisiones de HC <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">
                  <sup>34</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El butanol muestra una capacidad de reducción de hollín más evidente y ofrece una mayor eficiencia del combustible comparándolo con el biodiésel <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                  <sup>35</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">
                  <sup>36</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Las mezclas de butanol/diésel no requieren cosolventes o agentes mezcladores, debido a su naturaleza menos hidrófila <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                  <sup>37</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Por otro lado, el geraniol es un alcohol de orden superior que se obtiene a partir de la reacción con solución ácida y forma turpineol el cual ayuda a mejorar el rendimiento del motor <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">
                  <sup>38</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Con esto se puede llegar a concluir que el alcohol superior sería un posible sustituto del biodiésel en un motor diésel <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">
                  <sup>39</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Otros alcoholes superiores como el 1-pentanol y el n-octanol se presentan en las <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tablas 3</xref> y <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">4</xref> respectivamente.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t3">
                  <label>Tabla 3</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Ventajas del pentanol sobre el metanol y el etanol.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Ventaja</th>
                           <th align="center">Beneficio</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mejores propiedades de combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora la combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">
                                 <sup>17</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                                 <sup>35</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Tiene baja polaridad y es hidrófilo</td>
                           <td align="center">No muestra separación de fases</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">
                                 <sup>17</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                                 <sup>41</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">
                                 <sup>42</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Es miscible con diésel y aceite</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora la mezcla</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">
                                 <sup>17</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>, [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">
                                 <sup>25</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                                 <sup>35</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                                 <sup>41</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">
                                 <sup>42</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mayor número de cetano</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor rendimiento</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">
                                 <sup>25</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                                 <sup>41</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                                 <sup>35</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">
                                 <sup>42</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mayor velocidad de la llama y viscosidad</td>
                           <td align="center">Mayor valor calorífico</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">
                                 <sup>25</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                                 <sup>41</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">
                                 <sup>42</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menor calor de evaporización y presión</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora la eficiencia</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">
                                 <sup>25</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                                 <sup>35</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menor riesgo de corrosión</td>
                           <td align="center">Durabilidad</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">
                                 <sup>25</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                                 <sup>40</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                                 <sup>41</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">
                                 <sup>42</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t4">
                  <label>Tabla 4</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Beneficios del octanol sobre los alcoholes de cadena corta y el biodiésel.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Cualidad</th>
                           <th align="center">Logro</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Altamente miscible al diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor mezcla</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">
                                 <sup>43</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Emisiones de humo ultrabajas</td>
                           <td align="center">Reducción de humo</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">
                                 <sup>44</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mejores propiedades de flujo en frío</td>
                           <td align="center">Punto de fluidez de 9 °C</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">
                                 <sup>45</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Menos corrosivo que el resto de alcoholes</td>
                           <td align="center">Naturaleza hidrofóbica</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">
                                 <sup>46</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Tiene baja presión de vapor</td>
                           <td align="center">Puede ser seguro en el traslado y almacenamiento</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">
                                 <sup>46</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Alta tensión superficial y baja presión</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejor pulverización</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">
                                 <sup>44</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Cadena más larga y menos ramificada</td>
                           <td align="center">Genera mayor densidad energética</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">
                                 <sup>47</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Mayor número de cetanos, valor calorífico y la temperatura de autoignición</td>
                           <td align="center">Propiedades similares al diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">
                                 <sup>39</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>], [</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">
                                 <sup>46</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <title>Características de los éteres como biocombustibles</title>
         <p>El DEE (éter dietílico) tiene el potencial para hacer el suplemento de combustible más adecuado para los motores diésel, debido a su número de cetano y valor de calefacción, el cual es mayor en comparación con el etanol y el butanol y además es miscible con el combustible diésel y biodiésel <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">
               <sup>48</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. El DEE en modo de combustible dual puede usarse como combustible piloto, y de esta forma se podrían usar como combustible primario algunos combustibles alternativos como el gas natural comprimido, gas licuado de petróleo y biogás <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">
               <sup>49</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>, <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">
               <sup>50</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Aunque tiene menor valor calorífico en comparación con el diésel y el biodiésel, su menor viscosidad y densidad mejoran la calidad de atomización del combustible, lo que lleva a una mejor eficiencia de combustión <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">
               <sup>51</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. El DEE es de naturaleza renovable y se puede producir fácilmente mediante el etanol a un precio aceptable <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">
               <sup>50</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. El DME tiene muchas propiedades y se cree que es uno de los mejores combustibles alternativos en motores CI en el futuro, debido a su alto índice de cetano que es 55, en comparación con el diésel que es 40-53, tiene bajo ruido de combustión, alto nivel de eficiencia térmica, genera combustión sin hollín y con bajos niveles de NOx <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">
               <sup>52</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. También tiene mayor contenido de oxígeno que los combustibles convencionales (aproximadamente 35%) y no tiene enlace directo carbono-carbono (C-C), por lo tanto, tiene reducciones de contaminantes tales como PM (la materia particulada) y HC <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">
               <sup>53</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Aun así, sufre de baja viscosidad y carece de buenas características de lubricación, por lo que el uso de aditivos de lubricidad como Lubrizol (539 N) o biodiésel puede mejorar la viscosidad y lubricidad del DME <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">
               <sup>53</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Por su menor valor de calentamiento (alrededor de 28,4 MJ/kg) requiere casi el doble de cantidad de combustible inyectado por ciclo para llegar a tener la misma potencia del motor <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">
               <sup>54</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. Además, el bajo punto de ebullición del DME y su rápida evaporación requieren almacenarlo bajo presión constante para mantenerlo en fase líquida y así evitar su evaporación <sup>[</sup>
            <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">
               <sup>55</sup>
            </xref>
            <sup>]</sup>. En la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> se hace un resumen de los alcoholes más representativos para los motores de combustión interna.</p>
         <p>
            <fig id="f2">
               <label>Figura 2</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Cuadro sinóptico de los alcoholes aplicados en los motores de combustión interna.</title>
               </caption>
               <graphic xlink:href="v51n3a04image003.jpg"/>
            </fig>
         </p>
         <sec>
            <title>Mezclas en general con alcohol en motor diésel</title>
            <p>En la mezcla de dos líquidos pueden tener diferentes propiedades químicas, por lo que pueden existir problemas de inestabilidad y separación durante el funcionamiento del motor; esta es la razón de agregar aditivos (cosolventes) y de esta manera superar el problema de separación de fases <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">
                  <sup>56</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Los aditivos oxigenados pueden ayudar a encender el combustible más fácilmente y reducir la contaminación del escape del motor <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">
                  <sup>57</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El hidroxitolueno butilado y el n-butanol son aditivos antioxidantes que con biodiésel o diésel ayudan a reducir las emisiones de NOx, esto es debido a que el aditivo antioxidante tiene la capacidad de apagar los radicales libres durante la fase de combustión <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">
                  <sup>58</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Uno de los métodos probados para mejorar el rendimiento y reducir el NO y el humo es agregar alcoholes como metanol, etanol, n-butanol y n-petanol en mezclas de biodiésel o diésel <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">
                  <sup>59</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabla 5</xref> se muestra el desempeño del motor con mezclas de aceites con alcohol.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t5">
                  <label>Tabla 5</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Desempeño del motor aplicando mezclas de aceites con alcoholes.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Emisión que reduce</th>
                           <th align="center">Tipos de mezclas</th>
                           <th align="center">Desempeño del motor</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">1-octanol con 5% de aceite de palma y 95% de diésel y adición de 2EHN</td>
                           <td align="center">Combustión mejorada y mayor BTE</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">
                                 <sup>60</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">NOx, CO y humo</td>
                           <td align="center">1-octanol mezclado con diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora el BTE pero con mayores emisiones de HC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">
                                 <sup>61</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">CO y HC</td>
                           <td align="center">Biodiésel con n-butanol y pentanol</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora el BTE y el BSFC, y se concluye que es mejor e pentanol que el n-butanol</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">
                                 <sup>62</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">CO y HC</td>
                           <td align="center">1-octanol (10%, 20% y 30%) mezclado con diésel</td>
                           <td align="center">La adición de 1-octanol mejora el BTE, pero aumenta el NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">
                                 <sup>63</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">Mezcla de DME con biodiésel</td>
                           <td align="center">Reducción del retardo de encendido</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">
                                 <sup>64</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">40% de diésel, 40% de biodiésel, 10% de aceite vegetal y 10% de propanol</td>
                           <td align="center">Se tuvo el mayor BSFC y el menor NOx con un aumento de CO y HC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">
                                 <sup>65</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Varios</td>
                           <td align="center">Biodiésel de aceite de girasol residual, diésel, n-pentanol y n-hexanol</td>
                           <td align="center">La mezcla del n-hexanol con el biodiésel mejora los valores de BTE y BSFC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">
                                 <sup>66</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">Residuos de aceite usado como biodiésel con propanol, n-butanol y pentanol</td>
                           <td align="center">La mejor mezcla fue con pentanol</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">
                                 <sup>23</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">PM y hollín</td>
                           <td align="center">Mezcla de DME con PODEn (polioximetilen dimetil ésteres)</td>
                           <td align="center">Mejora la ignición y la calidad de pulverización; mejora el BTE, pero aumenta el NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">
                                 <sup>67</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>Raviteja et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">
                  <sup>68</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> estudiaron la mezcla de butanol enriquecido con hidrógeno y concluyeron que agregar hidrógeno reduce el consumo de combustible y además genera una disminución de emisiones. Diluir WPO (aceite de residuo de plástico) con alcohol, como etanol, metanol o butanol, tiene un beneficio adicional, ya que mejora significativamente las propiedades de almacenamiento y manejo de WPO <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">
                  <sup>69</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Hellier et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">
                  <sup>70</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> investigaron el efecto de las cianobacterias para la obtención del geraniol en motor CI; los resultados mostraron que el uso de geraniol al 100% aumenta el retraso de ignición y aumenta el NO; sin embargo, si se mezcla con diésel reduce significativamente la emisión de NO, por lo que se llegó a la conclusión que el geraniol mejora su comportamiento de combustión con los aceites comestibles.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Propiedades del diesterol-BED</title>
            <p>El bioetanol fue inicialmente considerado como un combustible alternativo para el motor SI debido a su mayor número de octanos; sin embargo, en los últimos años, el bioetanol ha surgido como un combustible que puede mezclarse con diésel y biodiésel utilizando aditivos adecuados <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">
                  <sup>71</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El etanol no es soluble en diésel y solo puede combinarse por medio del biodiésel que actúa como un intermediario; de hecho, el biodiésel actúa como un dispersante de partículas de etanol en el motor, creando así una mezcla estable. El etanol y el biodiésel son combustibles oxigenados que ayudan a mejorar la combustión. El etanol tiene un alto valor calorífico y baja densidad en comparación con el diésel puro y el biodiésel. Por otro lado, el biodiésel posee un bajo nivel calorífico, por lo que se compensa <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">
                  <sup>72</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El biodiésel-etanol-diésel (BED) es una mezcla de biocombustibles y diésel que tiene el valor energético cercano a los combustibles fósiles, ya que cuenta con excelentes propiedades en cuanto a su lubricación, densidad y viscosidad y se considera un combustible ecológico <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">
                  <sup>73</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. También se conoce la mezcla de diésel-biodiésel-etanol por un nuevo término: diesterol <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">
                  <sup>8</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Esta mezcla (biodiésel-etanol-diésel) da como resultado una mayor velocidad de calor, mayor retraso de encendido y más corta duración de la combustión <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                  <sup>20</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabla 6</xref> se analiza el rendimiento del motor con diesterol.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t6">
                  <label>Tabla 6</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Rendimiento del diesterol-BED en comparación con el diésel puro.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Rendimiento del motor</th>
                           <th align="center">Esto generó</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">El BTE aumentó ligeramente</td>
                           <td align="center">Una mayor tasa de combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">
                                 <sup>74</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">El BTE fue inferior</td>
                           <td align="center">Menor rendimiento que con el diésel puro</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">
                                 <sup>75</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">El BSFC aumentó</td>
                           <td align="center">Sucedió cada vez que se incrementó el etanol</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">
                                 <sup>76</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>El etanol tiene baja viscosidad y buenas propiedades de flujo en frío; el biodiésel se puede mezclar con etanol para disminuir su viscosidad y aumentar su volatilidad y mejorar sus propiedades de flujo en frío <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">
                  <sup>77</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Además, el mayor contenido de oxígeno en el etanol puede reducir aún más la emisión de PM (la materia particulada) en comparación con el biodiésel <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                  <sup>20</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Se puede observar en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabla 7</xref> la relación de emisiones en el motor aplicando diesterol.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t7">
                  <label>Tabla 7</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Concentraciones de emisiones en el motor CI con el diesterol-BED en comparación con el diésel puro.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Emisión que reduce</th>
                           <th align="center">La causa de esto</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">La mezcla reduce la emisión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">
                                 <sup>75</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO, NOx y humo</td>
                           <td align="center">Con la mezcla se logra la reducción</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                                 <sup>20</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PM y NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">Con la mezcla tiene mayor tasa de liberación de calor</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">
                                 <sup>78</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx y humo</td>
                           <td align="center">Tiene reducciones de emisiones y no sufre cambios en la eficiencia térmica</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                                 <sup>20</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO y NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">En alta velocidad se reduce el NOx y tiene mayor eficiencia térmica</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">
                                 <sup>79</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">HC, CO y hollín</td>
                           <td align="center">El etanol es un oxidante que reduce el BSFC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">
                                 <sup>74</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx</td>
                           <td align="center">Esto se debe al alto calor latente de evaporización del etanol, que reduce la temperatura de combustión.</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">
                                 <sup>80</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>La presencia del biodiésel en la mezcla de etanol y diésel hace aumentar el índice de cetano y mejora la calidad de autoignición de la mezcla de combustible en general; por otra parte, agregar etanol a la mezcla de biodiésel-diésel reduce la alta densidad y viscosidad del biodiésel, con lo cual se logran propiedades físicas y características de evaporación y de tamaño de gota más adecuadas en la mezcla del combustible <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">
                  <sup>81</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, y además la mezcla diésel-biodiésel-etanol contiene un alto contenido de oxígeno que aumenta el rendimiento del motor y reduce las emisiones de escape <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">
                  <sup>82</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. La estabilidad, almacenamiento y transporte son los primeros inconvenientes de la mezcla diesterol, lo que dificulta su aplicación comercial; sin embargo, esto puede ser resuelto agregando iso-pentanol a la mezcla, lo cual la hace más estable y segura para su aplicación <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">
                  <sup>83</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Mezclas de aceite con alcohol superior de cadena larga</title>
            <p>La adición de bioalcoholes mejora la atomización del combustible, se logra así una mejor combustión y por lo tanto se reducen los depósitos de carbono que se pueden encontrar en el motor, como en los aros de pistón, paredes de cilindros, inyectores, etc <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">
                  <sup>31</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. El aceite de pirolisis de la madera y el n-butanol se pueden mezclar sin ninguna separación de gases, ya que el n-butanol puede servir como disolvente orgánico, el cual es capaz de disolver partículas sólidas existentes y suprimir la polimerización <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">
                  <sup>69</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabla 8</xref> se muestra el comportamiento del motor agregando mezclas de butanol con biodiésel.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t8">
                  <label>Tabla 8</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Rendimiento y emisiones de la mezcla de biodiésel con butanol.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Emisiones que reducen</th>
                           <th align="center">Forma de aplicar</th>
                           <th align="center">La causa de esto</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Hollín y NOx</td>
                           <td align="left">Se inyecta el butanol a mayor presión de inyección</td>
                           <td align="left">La inyección a mayor presión es una técnica viable para reducir emisiones</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">
                                 <sup>84</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx y humo</td>
                           <td align="left">Se mezcla con aditivos</td>
                           <td align="left">Se mezcla con aceite de cocina usado y tiene una mejora en la combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">
                                 <sup>85</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO y humo</td>
                           <td align="left">Mezcla homogénea biodiésel/butanol</td>
                           <td align="left">Con la mezcla se genera un aumento en BSFC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">
                                 <sup>86</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PM</td>
                           <td align="left">29% de butanol</td>
                           <td align="left">Con la adición del butanol mejoran las propiedades de combustión</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">
                                 <sup>87</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PM</td>
                           <td align="left">20% de butanol</td>
                           <td align="left">Se aumenta el BTE agregando butanol y se obtiene un buen rendimiento</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">
                                 <sup>88</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx y humo</td>
                           <td align="left">10% de butanol y 90% de diésel/WPO</td>
                           <td align="left">La mezcla de butanol mejora el rendimiento del motor y reduce emisiones</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">
                                 <sup>89</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>De acuerdo con Lapuerta et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">
                  <sup>90</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, el taponamiento del filtro punto frío, punto de nube y punto de fluidez se reducen con el aumento del contenido del butanol en las mezclas de biodiésel-butanol <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">
                  <sup>20</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Es posible utilizar hasta un 40% de butanol y un 45% de pentanol como componentes de mezcla con diésel para alimentar el combustible de los motores CI y en el caso de mezclas con biodiésel se puede lograr hasta un 20% de butanol y pentanol sin alteraciones en el motor CI <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                  <sup>37</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Las mezclas de pentanol-biodiésel tienen viscosidades más bajas, mayor contenido de oxígeno y mayor calidad de ignición, lo que ayuda a lograr una mayor atomización y combustión; las mezclas de pentanol tienen mayor estabilidad de la mezcla y no muestran separación de fases <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">
                  <sup>24</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Es posible reemplazar hasta el 60% del diésel con biocombustibles (30% de biodiésel más 30% de pentanol) utilizando una estrategia de doble inyección <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                  <sup>37</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabla 9</xref> se muestran el rendimiento y las emisiones aplicando la mezcla de biodiésel con n-pentanol.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t9">
                  <label>Tabla 9</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Rendimiento y emisiones aplicando una mezcla de biodiésel con n-pentanol</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="left">Emisión que se reduce</th>
                           <th align="left">Forma de aplicar</th>
                           <th align="left">La causa de esto</th>
                           <th align="left">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Humo</td>
                           <td align="left">Se mezcló con varias condiciones de carga</td>
                           <td align="left">La mezcla de aceites de cocina usados mejora el rendimiento, pero con aumento de HC</td>
                           <td align="left">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">
                                 <sup>91</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx</td>
                           <td align="left">Se mezcló con un 20% de pentanol sin EGR</td>
                           <td align="left">La mezcla de aceite de cocina de desecho y pentanol resulta en una mejor eficiencia de combustión</td>
                           <td align="left">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">
                                 <sup>92</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PM</td>
                           <td align="left">Se mezcló homogéneamente pentanol con diésel</td>
                           <td align="left">Con la mezcla se reducen las emisiones</td>
                           <td align="left">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">
                                 <sup>93</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx, HC y CO</td>
                           <td align="left">Se compararon las mezclas pentanol/ biodiésel y pentanol/ diésel</td>
                           <td align="left">Se redujo el BTE en la mezcla pentanol/ biodiésel</td>
                           <td align="left">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">
                                 <sup>94</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Aplicación de bioalcohol como combustible piloto utilizando biogás como combustible principal</title>
            <p>En un motor de doble combustible con biogás como combustible principal, el biogás se puede depositar en el cilindro de combustión a través de un puerto de admisión con aire, mientras que el alcohol servirá como la fuente de ignición, el cual se inyecta directamente en la combustión del cilindro (piloto) <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">
                  <sup>95</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>; este combustible piloto puede estar conformado de diésel, biodiésel o éteres como el DME. El DME se mantiene con casi cero niveles de humo cuando es aplicado como combustible piloto, o bien se puede hacer en mezclas con biodiésel como lo señalan Paul et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">
                  <sup>96</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, quienes estudiaron la combustión dual de la mezcla de combustible piloto oxigenado y concluyeron que con un mayor porcentaje de biodiésel y etanol en el combustible piloto aumenta la eficiencia de combustión del motor y también disminuyen los NOx. En otro trabajo, Karabektas et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">
                  <sup>97</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> consideraron agregar el DEE como combustible piloto y encontraron que se genera una mejora en el BTE y en el BSFC; esto se debe al alto número de cetano de DEE y su contenido de oxígeno; por lo tanto, el proceso de combustión se mejora. El DEE se evapora rápidamente y se mezcla con el aire fácilmente; forma así una mezcla homogénea y además su alto calor de evaporación resulta en una temperatura más baja, y con esto se pueden reducir los NOx. En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Tabla 10</xref> se presenta el éter como combustible piloto en un motor que tiene como combustible principal el biogás.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t10">
                  <label>Tabla 10</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Emisiones y rendimiento en motor CI con la mezcla de biodiésel/biogás con DEE.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center">Emisión que reduce</th>
                           <th align="center">Tipo de biodiésel/biogás</th>
                           <th align="center">La causa de esto</th>
                           <th align="center">Referencia</th>
                        </tr>
 
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO</td>
                           <td align="left">WPO</td>
                           <td align="left">Con WPO el BTE se incrementó (100% de DEE), pero aumentó el HC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">
                                 <sup>98</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx y humo</td>
                           <td align="left">WPO</td>
                           <td align="left">El BTE se incrementó (con 15% de DEE) y se tuvo una reducción de BSFC</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">
                                 <sup>99</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">NOx</td>
                           <td align="left">WPO</td>
                           <td align="left">El BTE se incrementó (con 10% de DEE)</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">
                                 <sup>98</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO, HC y NOx</td>
                           <td align="left">Biodiésel/GNC</td>
                           <td align="left">Un BTE mejorado con DEE en un combustible dual</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">
                                 <sup>100</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO</td>
                           <td align="left">Biodiésel de soja</td>
                           <td align="left">Mejora el BSFC (con 5% de DEE); sin embargo, si se agrega más del 40% de DEE, produce una tendencia de detonación</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">
                                 <sup>49</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">CO, HC y humo</td>
                           <td align="left">Biodiésel/biogás</td>
                           <td align="left">Produjo un aumento en BTE (con 6% de DEE) en la mezcla con biodiésel como combustible piloto</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">
                                 <sup>49</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">-</td>
                           <td align="left">Gas acetileno</td>
                           <td align="left">Se redujo el consumo de energía (con 10% de DEE)</td>
                           <td align="center">
                              <sup>[</sup>
                              <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">
                                 <sup>101</sup>
                              </xref>
                              <sup>]</sup>
                           </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Mezclas de bioalcohol con agua en motor diésel</title>
            <p>Los bioalcoholes se pueden aplicar a los motores diésel mediante dos métodos: en modo de combustión dual y como emulsificación/microemulsificación <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">
                  <sup>67</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. A medida que aumenta el contenido de agua, la formación de NOx y el humo se reducen, pero el consumo de combustible, el CO y los HC se incrementan <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">
                  <sup>102</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. En el modo de emulsión (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>) aumenta el BTE alrededor de un 6,6%; la razón de este aumento se debe a la eficiencia de combustión mejorada por una mejor atomización y evaporación del combustible que se produce como resultado de una microexplosión <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">
                  <sup>56</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>.</p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f3">
                  <label>Figura 3</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Emulsión con alcohol. a) Fase acuosa, b) surfactante + alcohol, c) mezcla autoemulsión, d) aceite + cosolvente. (Elaboración propia).</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="v51n3a04image004.png"/>
               </fig>
            </p>
            <p>Algunos estudios confirman que los combustibles diésel/biodiésel se pueden mezclar con una baja relación de volumen de alcoholes para formar combustibles microemulsionados <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">
                  <sup>67</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). La microemulsión es un método utilizado para mezclar aceites vegetales o biodiésel con alcoholes y de esta manera reducir la viscosidad, y además sirve como disolvente (ejemplo, el butanol), debido a su mayor índice de cetano, menor riesgo de corrosión, menor polaridad y mayor valor calorífico <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">
                  <sup>103</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Kannan et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">
                  <sup>104</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup> estudiaron el efecto de las microemulsiones de diesterol-agua en motor diésel de un solo cilindro con diferentes cargas y una velocidad constante de 1500 rpm. Los resultados muestran que la microemulsión aumentó el BSFC y redujo el BTE, pero generó incrementos de CO, CO<sub>2</sub> y HC, aunque hubo reducciones significativas de NOx y humo. Otro estudio con resultados distintos lo presentan Mukhtar et al. <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">
                  <sup>105</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>; ellos analizaron el efecto del etanol en la emulsión con diésel, en una emulsión tricombustible (etanol, biodiésel y diésel). Los resultados señalan que la tasa de liberación de calor y la presión dentro del cilindro de la emulsión tricombustible durante el período de retardo del encendido aumento en comparación al diésel. La tasa máxima de liberación de calor y la presión dentro del cilindro de las emulsiones tricombustibles mejoraron en comparación con las del diésel.</p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f4">
                  <label>Figura 4</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Comportamiento de emulsiones/microemulsiones. a) Motor sin emulsión, b) combustión con partículas, c) motor con emulsión, d) combustión limpia. (Elaboración propia).</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="v51n3a04image005.jpg"/>
               </fig>
            </p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Adición de nanopartículas con alcohol en motor CI</title>
            <p>Las nanopartículas en las mezclas de combustible generan una oxidación debido a la alta relación del área de superficie-volumen y por su superficie reactiva más amplia, por lo que proporcionan mayor entalpía de combustión, con un aumento en la densidad energética <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">
                  <sup>106</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Se ha demostrado que existe un gran potencial entre diversas mezclas como el n-butanol y BHT, con lo que se logra una mejor estabilidad a la oxidación y reducción de NOx <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">
                  <sup>31</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>. Entre los estudios de mezclas de bioalcohol con nanopartículas destaca el de Venu <italic>et al.</italic> 
               <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">
                  <sup>107</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, en el cual investigaron el rendimiento y emisión de un motor diésel con una mezcla de diésel al 70%, biodiésel de aceite de Jatropha con 20%, etanol con 10% de combustible y con la adición de 25 ppm de nanopartículas de Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. Los resultados revelaron que la presión máxima del cilindro y el calor máximo de la tasa de liberación se alcanzaron más cerca de TDC (el punto muerto superior), y en el caso de las emisiones el HC, CO, NOx y la opacidad del humo se redujeron. Otro estudio destacable lo presentaron Shaafi <italic>et al.</italic> 
               <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">
                  <sup>108</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, quienes encontraron el efecto de las nanopartículas de alúmina, además de las mezclas de etanol e iso-propanol en un motor CI alimentado con biodiésel. El resultado mostró que la adición del etanol y la alúmina generó un aumento en la presión del cilindro de la tasa de liberación de calor. La temperatura de los gases de escape y el BTE aumentaron y además se redujeron las emisiones de CO y HC; sin embargo, los niveles de NOx aumentaron. Finalmente, otro estudio sobre este tema lo presentaron Selvan <italic>et al.</italic> 
               <sup>[</sup>
               <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">
                  <sup>109</sup>
               </xref>
               <sup>]</sup>, en el cual analizaron el efecto de incorporar nanopartículas de óxido de cerio y nanotubos de carbono en mezclas de diésel-biodiésel-etanol. Las nanopartículas de óxido de cerio actúan como catalizadores de suministro de oxígeno para oxidar el CO y reducir los óxidos de nitrógeno. La activación del óxido de cerio elimina los depósitos de carbono en el cilindro, lo que resulta en una reducción significativa de HC y emisiones de humo.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
         <title>Conclusiones</title>
         <p>Los alcoholes inferiores como combustible en los motores diésel solo pueden ser aplicados si se mezclan con biodiésel o con algún surfactante; en cambio, los alcoholes superiores son más adecuados para este tipo de motores. El n-butanol se destaca por su facilidad de desplazarse en las tuberías petroleras existentes; el pentanol por su parte tiene más estabilidad en la mezcla y no muestra separación de fases; si se logra tener una buena mezcla, se conseguirá una mejor atomización y combustión. Existe una gran variedad de alternativas de mezclas, entre las que se encuentran las emulsiones, las nanopartículas, los solventes, los aditivos oxigenados y antioxidantes, junto con las mezclas de los diferentes alcoholes además del biodiésel, que hacen que se tengan muchas opciones para generan valores en el desempeño del motor. Desafortunadamente, es necesario que se desarrolle una mayor aportación científica sobre la comparación de los efectos de los alcoholes inferiores (metanol y etanol) con los alcoholes superiores (butanol, pentanol y octanol) mediante análisis en el mismo motor bajo el mismo funcionamiento. Podemos asegurar que una de las claves de éxito para la aplicación de los biocombustibles es determinar la sinergia en la mezcla de alcoholes con otros compuestos que logren mejorar las condiciones del motor, a pesar de la variación que pueda generar el alcohol por las propiedades de su materia prima. Las flexibilidades en las propiedades de los alcoholes hacen que su mezcla con otras sustancias pueda ser efectiva, pero se recomienda emplear un intermediario que pueda servir para lograr una mezcla homogénea, por lo que los surfactantes pueden llegar a tener un protagonismo en el futuro. Por tal razón, este estudio recomienda su utilización. Una mezcla muy adecuada para la combustión puede ser el biodiésel con el pentanol, pero también puede ser con el n-octanol, y finalmente una mención especial al diesterol-BED. La posibilidad de elaborar una mezcla perfecta invita a seguir desarrollando investigaciones sobre esa línea.</p>
      </sec>
   </body>
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