ACTIO VOL. 10 NÚM. 2 | Julio - Diciembre / 2026

Influencia del género en las percepciones emocionales de los usuarios de sillas de ruedas: un estudio exploratorio utilizando la Rueda de las Emociones de Ginebra

Assistive Technology (AT) plays a crucial role in enhancing the independence and quality of life for individuals with mobility impairments, with the wheelchair standing as one of the most prevalent and vital devices. However, while extensive research has focused on optimizing biomechanical performance and functional ergonomics, the emotional dimension of user experience has received considerably less attention. Addressing this gap, the present study investigates the influence of wheelchair design on users' emotional responses, specifically comparing rigid-frame and folding-frame models. Emotional data were collected from 26 participants using the Geneva Emotion Wheel (GEW). The results reveal a clear divergence, rigid frame designs consistently elicited more positive affective states, including joy, curiosity, pride, and admiration. In contrast, folding-frame models were associated with a higher frequency of negative emotions. A significant gender-based disparity was observed, with female users reporting more intense negative reactions, such as sadness, shame, and repulsion, whereas male participants demonstrated a greater propensity for positive emotions. These findings underscore the critical need to integrate emotional and psychological factors, alongside gender perspectives, into the AT design process. More broadly, this research advocates the application of emotional design and cognitive ergonomics principles to develop products, services, and systems that not only function effectively but also promote user well-being, reduce stigma, and foster inclusive societal participation.

La Tecnología de Asistencia (TA) desempeña un papel fundamental en la mejora de la independencia y la calidad de vida de las personas con discapacidad motriz, siendo la silla de ruedas uno de los dispositivos más comunes y esenciales. Sin embargo, aunque numerosas investigaciones se han centrado en optimizar el rendimiento biomecánico y la ergonomía funcional, la dimensión emocional de la experiencia del usuario ha recibido considerablemente menos atención. Con el fin de abordar esta brecha, el presente estudio investiga la influencia del diseño de las sillas de ruedas en las respuestas emocionales de los usuarios, comparando específicamente modelos de estructura rígida y de estructura plegable. Los datos emocionales se recopilaron de 26 participantes mediante la Rueda de las Emociones de Ginebra (Geneva Emotion Wheel, GEW). Los resultados revelan una clara divergencia: los diseños de estructura rígida suscitaron de manera consistente estados afectivos más positivos, entre ellos alegría, curiosidad, orgullo y admiración. Por el contrario, los modelos de estructura plegable se asociaron con una mayor frecuencia de emociones negativas. Asimismo, se observó una diferencia significativa basada en el género: las usuarias reportaron reacciones negativas más intensas, como tristeza, vergüenza y repulsión, mientras que los participantes masculinos mostraron una mayor tendencia hacia emociones positivas. Estos hallazgos subrayan la necesidad crítica de integrar factores emocionales y psicológicos, junto con perspectivas de género, en el proceso de diseño de tecnologías de asistencia. De manera más amplia, esta investigación promueve la aplicación de los principios del diseño emocional y la ergonomía cognitiva para desarrollar productos, servicios y sistemas que no solo funcionen de manera eficaz, sino que también favorezcan el bienestar de los usuarios, reduzcan el estigma y fomenten una participación inclusiva en la sociedad.

Les technologies d’assistance (TA) jouent un rôle essentiel dans l’amélioration de l’autonomie et de la qualité de vie des personnes présentant des limitations de mobilité, le fauteuil roulant étant l’un des dispositifs les plus courants et les plus importants. Toutefois, bien que de nombreuses recherches se soient concentrées sur l’optimisation des performances biomécaniques et de l’ergonomie fonctionnelle, la dimension émotionnelle de l’expérience utilisateur a reçu beaucoup moins d’attention. Afin de combler cette lacune, la présente étude examine l’influence de la conception des fauteuils roulants sur les réponses émotionnelles des utilisateurs, en comparant plus particulièrement les modèles à châssis rigide et les modèles pliants. Les données émotionnelles ont été recueillies auprès de 26 participants à l’aide de la Roue des Émotions de Genève (Geneva Emotion Wheel – GEW). Les résultats révèlent une nette divergence : les fauteuils à châssis rigide ont systématiquement suscité des états affectifs plus positifs, notamment la joie, la curiosité, la fierté et l’admiration. À l’inverse, les modèles pliants ont été associés à une fréquence plus élevée d’émotions négatives. Une différence significative liée au genre a également été observée : les utilisatrices ont rapporté des réactions négatives plus intenses, telles que la tristesse, la honte et le dégoût, tandis que les participants masculins ont montré une plus grande propension aux émotions positives. Ces résultats soulignent la nécessité d’intégrer les facteurs émotionnels et psychologiques, ainsi que les perspectives de genre, dans le processus de conception des technologies d’assistance. Plus largement, cette recherche plaide pour l’application des principes du design émotionnel et de l’ergonomie cognitive afin de développer des produits, des services et des systèmes qui non seulement fonctionnent efficacement, mais favorisent également le bien-être des utilisateurs, réduisent la stigmatisation et encouragent une participation inclusive à la société.

La Tecnologia Assistiva (TA) svolge un ruolo fondamentale nel migliorare l’autonomia e la qualità della vita delle persone con disabilità motorie, e la sedia a rotelle rappresenta uno dei dispositivi più diffusi ed essenziali. Tuttavia, sebbene numerosi studi si siano concentrati sull’ottimizzazione delle prestazioni biomeccaniche e dell’ergonomia funzionale, la dimensione emotiva dell’esperienza dell’utente ha ricevuto molta meno attenzione. Per colmare questa lacuna, il presente studio analizza l’influenza del design delle sedie a rotelle sulle risposte emotive degli utenti, confrontando in particolare modelli a telaio rigido e modelli pieghevoli. I dati emotivi sono stati raccolti da 26 partecipanti utilizzando la Ruota delle Emozioni di Ginevra (Geneva Emotion Wheel – GEW). I risultati evidenziano una chiara divergenza: i modelli a telaio rigido hanno suscitato costantemente stati affettivi più positivi, tra cui gioia, curiosità, orgoglio e ammirazione. Al contrario, i modelli pieghevoli sono stati associati a una maggiore frequenza di emozioni negative. È emersa inoltre una significativa differenza legata al genere: le partecipanti donne hanno riportato reazioni negative più intense, come tristezza, vergogna e repulsione, mentre i partecipanti uomini hanno mostrato una maggiore propensione verso emozioni positive. Questi risultati evidenziano la necessità di integrare fattori emotivi e psicologici, insieme a prospettive di genere, nel processo di progettazione delle tecnologie assistive. Più in generale, questa ricerca sostiene l’applicazione dei principi del design emozionale e dell’ergonomia cognitiva per sviluppare prodotti, servizi e sistemi che non solo funzionino in modo efficace, ma promuovano anche il benessere degli utenti, riducano lo stigma e favoriscano una partecipazione inclusiva alla società.

A Tecnologia Assistiva (TA) desempenha um papel fundamental na promoção da independência e da qualidade de vida de pessoas com deficiência motora, sendo a cadeira de rodas um dos dispositivos mais comuns e essenciais. No entanto, embora numerosas pesquisas tenham se concentrado na otimização do desempenho biomecânico e da ergonomia funcional, a dimensão emocional da experiência do usuário tem recebido consideravelmente menos atenção. Buscando preencher essa lacuna, o presente estudo investiga a influência do design das cadeiras de rodas nas respostas emocionais dos usuários, comparando especificamente modelos de estrutura rígida e de estrutura dobrável. Os dados emocionais foram coletados de 26 participantes por meio da Roda das Emoções de Genebra (Geneva Emotion Wheel – GEW). Os resultados revelam uma clara divergência: os modelos de estrutura rígida suscitaram consistentemente estados afetivos mais positivos, incluindo alegria, curiosidade, orgulho e admiração. Em contraste, os modelos de estrutura dobrável foram associados a uma maior frequência de emoções negativas. Observou-se ainda uma diferença significativa relacionada ao gênero, com as mulheres relatando reações negativas mais intensas, como tristeza, vergonha e repulsa, enquanto os participantes do sexo masculino demonstraram maior propensão a emoções positivas. Esses achados ressaltam a necessidade crítica de integrar fatores emocionais e psicológicos, juntamente com perspectivas de gênero, ao processo de design de tecnologias assistivas. De forma mais ampla, esta pesquisa defende a aplicação dos princípios do design emocional e da ergonomia cognitiva no desenvolvimento de produtos, serviços e sistemas que não apenas funcionem de maneira eficaz, mas também promovam o bem-estar dos usuários, reduzam o estigma e favoreçam a participação inclusiva na sociedade.

Jose David Rojas Anaya

Ingeniero mecánico (UIS), Maestro y doctorando en Diseño y Desarrollo de Productos (UAM-Azcapotzalco).

Su investigación abarca diseño para la salud, usabilidad y experiencia de usuario en tecnologías de asistencia.

Correo electrónico: al2233802332@azc.uam.mx

ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9112-8733

Areli García González

Diseñadora Industrial y Maestra en Ciencias y Artes para el Diseño. Profesora investigadora en la UAM Azcapotzalco con experiencia en ergonomía y museografía; actualmente es directora de la División de CyAD-AZC

Correo electrónico: areligg@azc.uam.mx

ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8902-0002

ESP/ ENG/ FRA/ ITA/ POR

Influenza del genere sulle percezioni emotive degli utenti di sedie a rotelle: uno studio esplorativo mediante la Ruota delle Emozioni di Ginevra

Riassunti

PAROLE CHIAVE: Tecnologia Assistiva; sedia a rotelle; esperienza dell’utente; ergonomia cognitiva; design emozionale; Ruota delle Emozioni di Ginevra.

Resumen

PALABRAS CLAVE: Tecnología de Asistencia; silla de ruedas; experiencia del usuario; ergonomía cognitiva; diseño emocional; Rueda de las Emociones de Ginebra.

Gender influence on the emotional perceptions of wheelchair users: an exploratory study using the Geneva Emotion Wheel

Abstract

KEYWORDS: Assistive Technology, Wheelchair, User Experience, Cognitive Ergonomics, Emotional Design, Geneva Emotion Wheel.

Influence du genre sur les perceptions émotionnelles des utilisateurs de fauteuils roulants : une étude exploratoire utilisant la Roue des Émotions de Genève

Resumé

MOTS-CLÉS: technologie d’assistance ; fauteuil roulant ; expérience utilisateur ; ergonomie cognitive ; design émotionnel ; Roue des Émotions de Genève.

Influência do gênero nas percepções emocionais de usuários de cadeiras de rodas: um estudo exploratório utilizando a Roda das Emoções de Genebra

Resumo

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Tecnologia Assistiva; cadeira de rodas; experiência do usuário; ergonomia cognitiva; design emocional; Roda das Emoções de Genebra.

Recibido:13/03/2025; Aceptado:23/09/2025; Publicado en línea:1/07/2026

Introduction

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Assistive Technology (AT) can be defined as any device, system, or product designed to enhance, maintain, or improve the functional abilities of individuals with disabilities. To facilitate daily activities and improve accessibility to various environments, individuals with mobility limitations or lower limb impairments often rely on one of the most widely recognized forms of AT: the wheelchair. While research in the fields of health and engineering has extensively examined the biomechanical implications of wheelchair use and explored ways to enhance its efficiency, studies on users’ emotions and perceptions regarding this technology remain in an early stage of exploration (De Sousa Chaparro et al., 2022).

Understanding the emotional experience of wheelchair users is essential, as it directly impacts their overall well-being, social participation, and quality of life. Cognitive ergonomics and emotional design play a crucial role in analyzing how users perceive and interact with assistive devices. Previous studies indicate that the design of AT can evoke both positive and negative emotions, influencing not only usability but also user satisfaction and social integration (Norman, 2008; Mokdad et al., 2018). However, research on emotional responses to wheelchair design remains limited, particularly regarding differences based on gender and individual perceptions.

Recent literature demonstrates a growing interest in merging emotional design principles with user experience (UX)-centered approaches, particularly in Assistive Technologies. Studies by Mokdad et al. (2018), Lanutti et al. (2015, 2021), and Rojas Anaya and García González (2022) suggest that user satisfaction with assistive devices depends not only on functionality but also on the design’s capacity to evoke positive emotions while mitigating negative perceptions. These works highlight that integrating a gender perspective into UX analysis reveals notable differences in user expectations, aesthetic preferences, and emotional needs, thereby promoting more inclusive design solutions. Consequently, the intersection of emotional design and UX, examined through a gender-sensitive lens, offers a robust conceptual framework to enhance the acceptance and usability of assistive devices such as wheelchairs.

By implementing digital emotional assessment tools, such as the Geneva Emotion Wheel (GEW), this study aims to evaluate how different wheelchair designs influence users' emotional responses. The results will advance the understanding of emotional design’s role in Assistive Technology, offering practical insights for designers seeking to improve wheelchair acceptance, comfort, and overall user satisfaction.

Conceptual framework

Cognitive ergonomics

Cognition has been described as an information-processing system that blends sensory stimulation along with attention, perception, memory, and interpretation to ultimately lead to decision-making and reactions (Berlin and Adams, 2017). Additionally, Norman (2008), further emphasizes that affect and emotion are essential aspects of cognitive and decision-making operations. Norman indicates that patients suffering from neurological illnesses that impair the region of the brain that deals with feelings are often likely to make poor choices. Drawing from this understanding, Norman writes: "We cognitive scientists now understand that emotion is an essential part of life, impacting how you feel, how you behave, and how you think" (Silva et al., 2021).

Cruz and Corrêa (2000) defines the cognitive process as a series of individual operations that emphasize the presence of various styles to perceive, process, and organize information. Therefore, cognitive ergonomics goes beyond just understanding mental processes like perception, memory, reasoning, and how the people respond when interacting with systems. It also dives into areas like mental workload, the make decisions, the way interact with technology, the impact of stress at work, and the ability to learn, all of the above in relation to projects involving humans and systems (Corrêa and Boletti, 2015; Iida, 2005). It is important to highlight that cognitive processes are interconnected with emotions and affects; therefore, there is no separation between mind and emotion. (Damásio, 2012; Norman, 2008; Piaget, 2013; Rocha and Kastrup, 2009; Silva et al., 2021)

Research in cognitive ergonomics can encompass a variety of contexts, such as the performance of work activities (Abrahão et al., 2005), relationships with space or environment (Schneider, 2002), and interactions with objects, in terms of perception, interaction, and usability (Campos, 2004; Norman, 2006, 2008; Rogers et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2021).

Emotional design

During the development of a project, it is feasible to produce a "technically perfect alternative"; yet it may present ergonomic or aesthetic concerns. In these circumstances, the designer must offer new options that foster greater interaction between the product and the user, combining emotional criteria (Lanutti, 2019). It is vital to have considerable interaction between the user and the expert in charge of the product creation, adopting approaches that promote an appropriate procedure for this interaction (Garcez, 2020).

Emotional design emerged in the 1990s and falls within methodological strategies that are user centered. Even though it has sometimes been misperceived as an attempt to produce specific feelings such as happiness or relaxation, the actual intention is to explore subjective human feelings. As Tonetto and Da Costa (2011) assert, this method provides tools and knowledge to be employed in projects that are intended to produce or avoid certain feelings (Feitosa et al., 2019). The product must be able to convey emotions, values, and the user's identity to ensure complete satisfaction. Human interactions, laden with emotions, help to judge contexts in a favorable or negative way. Norman (2008), argues that emotions affect decision-making and that both positive and negative emotions are important in this process. Therefore, products cannot be separated from our emotions because they are not neutral and inevitably influence our feelings (Damásio, 2000; Desmet and Hekkert, 2002; Nascimento et al., 2020).

The judgment that something is good or bad is strongly linked to personal experiences. A product may feel uncomfortable if it triggers embarrassment or reminds someone of unpleasant experiences, but it may feel comfortable if it has an appealing look or if using it feels natural (Norman, 2008). Aesthetics, functionality, and usability are essential aspects of design, but the emotional aspect, crucial to the relationship between individuals and products is sometimes overlooked (Nascimento et al., 2020). Norman (2008) categorizes emotional design into three levels: visceral, behavioral, and reflective. The visceral level addresses the initial impression based on the product’s appearance; the behavioral level relates to perception during use, where functionality takes priority; and the reflective level involves the emotions the product evokes, such as triggering memories or thoughts about one's self-image. Engaging the consumer on all three levels is essential to a product's success (Nascimento et al., 2020).

Generally, Emotional Design investigates the connection between individuals and artifacts from emotional, intellectual, and psychological perspectives (Tonetto and Da Costa, 2011). Whether the intention is to increase sales or strengthen the relationship between the user and the product, it seeks to address the emotional aspirations and needs of the user from a strategic, user-centered perspective. Emotional Design does not seek to control or manipulate emotions but rather to explore the aspirations and desires that prompt individuals to use or consume a product based on emotion (Nucci Porsani, 2020).

The importance of emotional reactions in wheelchair design

Emotional reactions are a determining factor in user interaction with products and services, especially in the field of AT design (Andrade and Teixeira, 2019). According to Teles Carneiro (2018), an emotional reaction consists of one or more automatic and intrinsically personal responses, triggered by stimuli during interaction with a product and directly related to its impact on the user's well-being. These responses arise from subjective assessments of how well the product aligns with the user's individual interests and goals (Andrade and Teixeira, 2019). The evaluation of emotional responses is an essential component that extends beyond purely functional or usability aspects, as the associated personal and psychosocial factors are significant predictors of the adoption and acceptance of AT (Teles Carneiro et al., 2019).

In the specific context of wheelchair design, managing these emotional responses is particularly important. This device is often perceived socially as a symbol of disability and stigma, which negatively affects the user's self-image and self-esteem (Barth et al., 2022; Lanutti, 2019; Nucci Porsani, 2020). Recent research confirms that design features influence the emotional responses of both users and observers (Teles Carneiro et al., 2019).

Integrating principles of emotional design—through the use of forms, colors, textures, and opportunities for personalization—allows designers to move beyond basic functionality (Ferro-Marques et al., 2023; Lanutti, 2019; Nucci Porsani, 2020; Santos, 2025). By reconceptualizing the wheelchair as an expression of personal identity and a style element, we can promote not only its acceptance but also the user's confidence, well-being, and empowerment (Ferro-Marques et al., 2023; Santos, 2025; Teles Carneiro, 2018). Consequently, a design approach focused on the emotional experience is crucial for promoting more humane rehabilitation processes and enabling effective social inclusion (Lanutti, 2019; Santos, 2025).

Materials and methods

The data collection process for this study was originally part of the research methodology in a master's thesis focused on analyzing and proposing improvements to the design of manual propulsion wheelchairs based on user perception and satisfaction (Rojas Anaya, 2021). However, for this study, the previously collected data were revisited and analyzed from a different perspective, specifically considering gender-based emotional responses. This new approach allows for a deeper understanding of how wheelchair design influences user experience, taking into account gender differences in emotional perception.

Analyzed Products: Standard mechanical manual-propulsion Wheelchairs

According to the classification proposed by Bertoncello y Gomes (2002), this study compared two models of standard mechanical manual-propulsion wheelchairs. The first model chosen was the fixed-frame wheelchair, which has a rigid frame that cannot be folded due to the absence of joints. The other was the folding-frame wheelchair, featuring a cross-frame system that allows it to fold.

Regarding wheelchair type allocation, this was not determined by the researchers but rather corresponded to each participant's real-life situation. In most cases, the model selection was conditioned by availability in healthcare institutions, medical recommendations, or donations from foundations. This factor was not treated as an independent variable in the analysis, as the study focused on evaluating emotions elicited by the design of the wheelchair model in use, rather than the prior rationale for its acquisition.

Distribution of participants

The research included 26 wheelchair users. These participants were distributed as follows: 10 users used foldable frame wheelchairs (4 female and 6 male), while 16 users used rigid frame wheelchairs (8 male and 8 female). This distribution is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Distribution and average ages of the participant sample

Type of wheelchair	Distribution of participants by gender			Average age
Folding-frame wheelchair	n=10	Male	6	35,6
		Female	4	36
Rigid-frame wheelchair	n=16	Male	8	44
		Female	8	47,13

Participation Criteria

The eligibility criteria for participating in this research were as follows: a) To be a permanent user of a manual propulsion wheelchair (foldable or rigid), b) to have no cognitive impairment that could affect the understanding of the instrument, c) to be 18 years of age or older, and d) to have a minimum of two years of continuous experience with the wheelchair model used at the time of the study.

It is important to note that, as an exclusion criterion, individuals who had recently made changes or modifications to their wheelchair design or who alternately used different models were excluded, to avoid biases in emotional perception.

Digital Emotional Evaluation: methodology and tools

The emotional evaluation was conducted with two wheelchair models: the folding-frame wheelchair and the rigid-frame wheelchair.

For the research, wheelchair models were created in SolidWorks, and a video was generated for each model using the same software. The videos allowed users to view the design of the wheelchairs and each of their components through two 360-degree rotations. In these videos, all background music was removed, and no technical features of the wheelchairs were described to maintain a neutral environment, avoid altering emotions, or create bias among users. It is important to mention that the people evaluated only the type of wheelchair they were users of.

Data collection was conducted remotely during the first half of 2021 under COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. Each individual session lasted approximately 25-35 minutes per participant and was administered via Zoom. During the session, participants viewed the wheelchair-type-specific video and subsequently completed the digital questionnaire developed in Google Forms. Throughout the process, researchers remained online and available to provide precise guidance on completing the form, as well as to address any questions that arose during the procedure.

Emotional Measurement Tool: Geneva Emotions Wheel (GEW)

The Geneva Emotions Wheel (GEW) is a metric that analyzes emotions through a dimensional system. Developed by Scherer (2005), it has demonstrated good validity and reliability and has been frequently utilized in researches (Mokdad et al., 2018; Branco, 2021). The GEW segments a circle into four quadrants using two axes: High and low control1, as well as positive and negative valence2 (see Figure 1). Each quadrant contains five pairs of feelings, coupled with a center choice that allows respondents to indicate either the absence of an emotion or the presence of a different one. The intensity of each emotion pair is represented by circles that gradually fluctuate in size (Branco, 2021).

Figure 1. Geneva Emotions Wheel. Note: Adapted from Geneva Emotion Wheel Rating Study (report), by V. Sacharin, K. Schlegel, and K. R. Scherer (2012), University of Geneva, Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, Geneva, Switzerland.

The approach utilized to measure emotional responses to the wheelchair designs in this study includes an obligatory rating system for each emotion listed in the wheel. Users were needed to score the intensity of each defined emotion on a scale from 0 (zero), indicating no intensity, to 5 (five), denoting the highest intensity. Additionally, an optional inquiry allowed customers to report any emotional response not covered in the wheel that they experienced when interacting with the device.

Software used for data analysis

For data analysis, Microsoft Excel was used to calculate descriptive measures of central tendency and dispersion for each evaluated emotion, with results disaggregated by gender and wheelchair type. Qualitative analysis techniques were not applied, as responses focused on numerical values of emotional intensity, supplemented only by optional textual observations. These observations were treated solely through non-systematic descriptive coding.

Results and discussion

The findings from the research showed that wheelchair users' emotional responses varied in both intensity and type, influenced by factors such as wheelchair design and gender.

In the analysis of the emotional responses of the female sample for the folding-frame wheelchair, low averages were observed for positive emotions. Female participants reported moderate levels of interest/curiosity (0.75; SD=1.50) and pride/vanity (0.75; SD=1.50). Happiness/joy was low (0.5; SD=1.00), while enjoyment/pleasure (1.25; SD=1.50) and relief/unburdening (1.75; SD=1.50) were higher. Positive emotions such as tenderness/love (0.5; SD=1.00) and admiration/charm (0.25; SD=0.50) also showed low values. In contrast, negative emotions displayed higher averages, with nostalgia/longing reaching a high value (3.00; SD=2.16), along with pity/compassion (2.5; SD=2.08), sadness/depression (2.5; SD=2.08), and disgust/repulsion (2.75; SD=2.06). Fear/worry (2.25; SD=2.22) and embarrassment/shame (2.00; SD=2.45) also showed considerable values. Disappointment/regret (2.5; SD=2.08) and guilt/remorse (1.25; SD=2.50) were relevant, indicating an emotionally negative experience for this sample of participants. These values can be observed in Table 2.

Regarding the male sample, the emotional responses for the folding-frame wheelchair indicated higher levels of positive emotions. Happiness/joy was notable (2.67; SD=1.37), along with relief/unburdening (2.50; SD=1.64) and enjoyment/pleasure (2.17; SD=1.47). Interest/curiosity was also considerable (1.50; SD=1.64). Other positive emotions such as tenderness/love (1.00; SD=1.26) and admiration/charm (1.00; SD=1.26) were more moderate. Negative emotions in this sample showed comparatively lower averages. Nostalgia/longing was prominent (2.50; SD=1.05), followed by sadness/depression (2.17; SD=1.17). Fear/worry (1.67; SD=1.51) and embarrassment/shame (0.83; SD=1.17) presented lower values. Other negative emotions such as pity/compassion (1.33; SD=1.03) and disgust/repulsion (0.83; SD=1.17) were less pronounced. The values for the male sample of users of the folding structure wheelchair can be evidenced in Table 2. Likewise, the graphical comparison between the results of the male and female samples for this type of wheelchair can be observed in Figure 2.

Table 2. Results for users of the folding-frame wheelchair

Results for users of the folding-frame wheelchair	Female users n= 4		Male users n= 6
Data	Average
Years of wheelchair use	7,5		7,83
Age of users	36		35,67
Emotions	Results of emotional reactions
	Average	Standard Deviation	Average	Standard Deviation
Interest / Curiosity	0,75	1,5	1,5	1,64
Amusement / Laughter	0	0	0,5	1,22
Pride / Vanity	0,75	1,5	1,17	1,17
Happiness / Joy	0,5	1	2,67	1,37
Enjoyment / Pleasure	1,25	1,5	2,17	1,47
Tenderness / Love	0,5	1	1	1,26
Admiration / Charm	0,25	0,5	1	1,26
Relief / Unburdening	1,75	1,5	2,5	1,64
Astonishment / Surprise	0,5	0,58	1,17	1,47
Nostalgia / Longing	3	2,16	2,5	1,05
Pity / Compassion	2,5	2,08	1,33	1,03
Sadness / Depression	2,5	2,08	2,17	1,17
Fear / Worry	2,25	2,22	1,67	1,51
Embarrassment / Shame	2	2,45	0,83	1,17
Guilt / Remorse	1,25	2,5	0,67	1,21
Disappointment / Regret	2,5	2,08	1,33	1,21
Envy / Jealousy	0,5	1	0,83	1,17
Disgust / Repulsion	2,75	2,06	0,83	1,17
Contempt / Scorn	2	2,45	0,83	1,17
Anger / Irritation	1	1,41	0,83	1,17

Figure 2. Comparison of emotional perceptions by gender on the folding-frame wheelchair.

On the other hand, for the female sample using the rigid-frame wheelchair, high averages were observed for positive emotions. Interest/curiosity (4.00; SD=0.93), happiness/joy (3.75; SD=1.16), and pride/vanity (3.25; SD=0.89) stood out. Enjoyment/pleasure (3.63; SD=1.30) and admiration/charm (3.75; SD=1.39) were also high, along with tenderness/love (3.13; SD=0.64). Negative emotions were less pronounced in this sample. Nostalgia/longing (0.88; SD=1.13) and pity/compassion (0.38; SD=0.52) showed low values, as did sadness/depression (0.63; SD=1.06) and fear/worry (1.00; SD=1.20). Embarrassment/shame (0.38; SD=0.74) and guilt/remorse (0.25; SD=0.46) were also lower, suggesting a generally positive experience for this sample of participants using the rigid-frame wheelchair. These values can be observed in Table 3.

Similarly, the male sample using the rigid-frame wheelchair reported high averages for positive emotions. Interest/curiosity (3.00; SD=0.53), happiness/joy (2.38; SD=1.19), and enjoyment/pleasure (2.75; SD=1.04) were prominent. Additionally, admiration/charm (2.75; SD=2.05) and tenderness/love (2.25; SD=0.71) were significant. Negative emotions in this sample were generally low. Nostalgia/longing (0.50; SD=0.76) and pity/compassion (0.38; SD=0.52) were minimal, as were sadness/depression (1.13; SD=1.25) and fear/worry (0.38; SD=0.52). Embarrassment/shame (0.13; SD=0.35) and guilt/remorse (0.13; SD=0.35) were also low, reflecting a predominantly positive experience with the use of the rigid-frame wheelchair. The values for the male sample of users of the rigid structure wheelchair can be evidenced in Table 3. Likewise, the graphical comparison between the results of the male and female samples for this type of wheelchair can be observed in Figure 3.

Table 3. Results for users of the rigid-frame wheelchair

Results for users of the rigid-frame wheelchair	Female users n=8		Male users n=8
Data	Average
Years of wheelchair use	12,5		9,5
Age of users	47,12		44,37
Emotions	Results of emotional reactions
	Average	Standard Deviation	Average	Standard Deviation
Interest / Curiosity	4	0,93	3	0,53
Amusement / Laughter	2,63	2	1,75	1,91
Pride / Vanity	3,25	0,89	2,5	2,07
Happiness / Joy	3,75	1,16	2,38	1,19
Enjoyment / Pleasure	3,63	1,3	2,75	1,04
Tenderness / Love	3,13	0,64	2,25	0,71
Admiration / Charm	3,75	1,39	2,75	2,05
Relief / Unburdening	3,38	1,19	2,5	2,27
Astonishment / Surprise	2,88	1,46	2,13	2,23
Nostalgia / Longing	0,88	1,13	0,5	0,76
Pity / Compassion	0,38	0,52	0,38	0,52
Sadness / Depression	0,63	1,06	1,13	1,25
Fear / Worry	1	1,2	0,38	0,52
Embarrassment / Shame	0,38	0,74	0,13	0,35
Guilt / Remorse	0,25	0,46	0,13	0,35
Disappointment / Regret	0,44	0,74	0,25	0,46
Envy / Jealousy	0,75	0,35	0,625	0,52
Disgust / Repulsion	0,5	0,52	0,375	0,52
Contempt / Scorn	0,5	0,53	0,375	0,52
Anger / Irritation	0,5	0,53	0,5	0,53

Figure 3. Comparison of emotional perceptions by gender on the rigid-frame wheelchair.

The results indicate that positive emotions predominate in the responses of users of rigid-frame wheelchairs, both in female and male samples. In contrast, negative emotions were more frequent among users of folding-frame wheelchairs, especially in the female sample. This analysis suggests that the structure of the wheelchair can significantly influence users' emotional responses, highlighting the importance of considering emotional aspects in the design and selection of these assistive devices.

The findings described above regarding the perception of these AT products, such as wheelchairs, reveal differences based on the user's gender, which must be considered when designing such products. Studies by J. Lanutti et al. (2015), Ravneberg and Söderström (2017), Mokdad et al. (2018), Lanutti et al. (2021) and Rojas and García (2022) provide a solid foundation for understanding how emotional perceptions are influenced by product design and user gender, and how these factors, in turn, affect the satisfaction and acceptance of these devices.

Like Lanutti et al. (2021), it was also found that male wheelchair users tend to have more positive perceptions with greater intensity compared to female users. These studies suggest that this is because men place greater value on the technical and functional aspects of wheelchairs, such as stability and safety, while women are more influenced by visual appeal and social factors, which reinforce the stigmas associated with the use of the device. Therefore, it could be argued that wheelchairs are associated with stigmas that more negatively affect female users. Lanutti et al. (2015) and Mokdad et al. (2018) mention that women perceive wheelchairs more negatively due to their impact on self-image and the social repercussions of using the device. Lanutti et al. (2021) suggest that designers should consider these aspects when developing AT products, incorporating elements that activate positive emotional perceptions through personalization and visual appeal in the design. These contributions align with the research of Ravneberg and Söderström (2017) who explored the influence of gender on the perception and use of AT devices. According to these authors, female users perceive their wheelchair as a reflection of their femininity and personality, while male users compare their wheelchair to mountain bikes and cars, reflecting strength and courage. This pattern is consistent with Baron-Cohen's (2003) theory, which suggests that men have a greater capacity for systematization, while women have a greater capacity for empathy, influencing their respective evaluations of wheelchairs.

On the other hand, like this research, the study by Mokdad et al. (2018) concludes that women tend to have more negative perceptions of their wheelchairs due to the unwanted attention they attract, viewing them as a symbol of disability, which aligns with findings from previous studies (Chaves et al., 2004; Lanutti et al., 2015). These findings suggest that women may be more affected by the stigmas associated with wheelchair use and the unwanted attention they attract, negatively impacting their emotional well-being. Likewise, Mokdad et al. (2018) mention that, in developing countries, negative attitudes toward people with disabilities contribute to negative emotional perceptions of wheelchairs. Although this cultural aspect was not explicitly explored in this research, it is possible that these negative social attitudes also affect users' perceptions in similar contexts.

The aforementioned studies underscore the importance of considering both functional and emotional aspects in the design of wheelchairs. Designers should strive to mitigate negative emotions by incorporating elements that address the emotional needs of users, particularly those of women. This may include personalizing wheelchairs in terms of visual appeal, colors, and accessories that resonate with users' individual preferences, as suggested by Lanutti et al. (2021). Additionally, designers should work to change negative social attitudes toward wheelchairs and their users, promoting greater inclusion and acceptance in society. This could involve awareness and education campaigns to reduce the stigma associated with wheelchair use.

Similarly, Rojas and García (2022) found that gender-based differences in perception were more pronounced in folding-frame wheelchairs than in rigid-frame wheelchairs. This suggests that the type of wheelchair design influences user perception. The results of this research align with those authors, indicating that design can affect emotional perceptions in AT products. Based on these findings, the need to incorporate gender as a factor in the wheelchair design process is emphasized to better address users' expectations and needs. Therefore, designers should consider not only functional aspects but also symbolic and aesthetic ones, particularly to improve perceptions among women. This may include personalizing wheelchairs and considering physical and social differences between genders.

Likewise, the study by Lanutti (2015), using the Semantic Differential, revealed that women evaluated wheelchairs more negatively in terms of visual appeal and symbolism, attributing adjectives such as ugly, humble, and repulsive to the device. Additionally, women described wheelchairs as exclusive and inefficient, reflecting limited mobility that impacts their social participation and effective use of the device. These findings, along with the differences in metaphors and language used to describe wheelchairs, reinforce the need to design wheelchairs that are not only functional but also meet the aesthetic and symbolic preferences of users, especially women.

Although the results obtained in this research are relevant, certain limitations must be considered. First, the small sample size of users represents a significant limitation, as it reduces the statistical analysis, and therefore, the results cannot be extrapolated to the entire Mexican population that uses wheelchairs. However, in relation to sample size, according to Rodrigues et al. (2022), in the most research with minority populations, such as people with disabilities, there is a limitation in terms of the number of potential participants. It is pointed out that, because of this, there is only a small number of experts and end users available to participate in the research. Additionally, this author highlights that many publications and research articles tend to evaluate assistive devices using participants without disabilities, which points to a lack of inclusion of the experiences of people with disabilities in the validation process. This study sought to address this gap by directly incorporating wheelchair users’ perceptions and emotional responses, ensuring that their experiences are central to the evaluation and analysis of AT design.

A second limitation was the diversity of medical conditions among participants, which may have influenced and generalized the results obtained. Finally, a third limitation of this study is that it only considers the emotional perceptions of people who identify as male or female, excluding the experiences of people with non-binary gender. This limitation may result in an incomplete understanding of the full spectrum of gender-related emotional responses to wheelchair design. Future research should aim to incorporate a more inclusive approach that considers diverse gender identities, allowing for a broader and more representative analysis of user perceptions.

Conclusions

This study examined the relationship between wheelchair design and user emotional reactions, with a specific focus on gender-based differences. The findings demonstrated that the type of wheelchair frame significantly influenced users' emotional responses. Rigid-frame wheelchairs generated more positive evaluations from both men and women, eliciting emotions such as interest, joy, pleasure, and admiration. In contrast, folding-frame models were associated with more negative reactions, particularly among female participants. These results underscored the critical importance of personalization and aesthetic considerations in wheelchair design, highlighting the need to address gender differences to enhance user perception and acceptance, especially for women.

The preference for rigid-frame designs could be attributed to their functional and symbolic qualities. Functionally, they are perceived as more stable, durable, and reliable, thereby reducing concerns about fragility. Symbolically, their aesthetic align less with medical or temporary solutions and more with robustness, sportiness, and capability that support a positive self-image and social identity. Conversely, although practical for storage and transport, folding-frame wheelchairs appear to reinforce perceptions of vulnerability and dependency.

Regarding design implications, the results suggested that men and women may not require fundamentally different products, but rather solutions that accommodate personalization and adaptability. Consequently, a design strategy that integrates structural robustness with customizable aesthetic and ergonomic features could effectively address the needs of both groups. This supports that the potential of the cognitive ergonomics principles and the emotional design with personalization options could improve satisfaction across diverse users.

Beyond wheelchairs, this study contributed to a broader understanding of how gender-mediated emotional responses can inform the design of products, services, and systems. The evidence indicated that gender-based differences in emotional perception were not solely about the usability of product but could were also deeply tied to symbolic and social dimensions of the user experience. Recognizing these distinctions can empower designers to create solutions that foster positive emotions, mitigate stigma, and reinforce users’ sense of identity and autonomy.

From a broader perspective, these insights are transferable to other domains of AT and consumer product design where emotional engagement and inclusivity are essential. By leveraging emotional design and cognitive ergonomics, designers can develop experiences that resonate with diverse user groups—adapting aesthetics, interaction modes, and customization capabilities to align with specific emotional and cultural expectations. Such an approach paves the way for a more empathetic and human-centered design practice, promoting acceptance, satisfaction, and social inclusion for people with disabilities.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their gratitude to the FINDEDIS (Fundación para la Inclusión y Desarrollo de Personas con Discapacidad) for providing the necessary support in recruiting participants during the data collection phase.

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1. Based to what Scherer (2013) indicated, control, also referred to as power, refers to a person's perception of their ability to influence an emotional situation. This dimension evaluates whether an emotion is associated with the feeling of having power or control over an event (high control/power) or, on the contrary, with the feeling of being at the mercy of external factors (low control/power). Ir al texto
2. According to Scherer (2013), valence refers to the affective dimension that indicates whether an emotion is positive or negative. It is a fundamental concept in the psychology of emotions, used to classify emotions in terms of their pleasantness or unpleasantness. Ir al texto