Profile: Issues in Teachers' Professional Development

Introduction

The use of audiovisual materials in language learning has been extensively investigated, as evidenced by the comprehensive literature review conducted by Wood-Borque (2022). This review emphasises the significant role played by visual elements in language learning, elucidating how images complement verbal communication and heighten concentration. These materials not only enhance students’ motivation and involvement but also provide genuine content, promote cross-cultural communication, and refine communicative skills. Moreover, they have the potential to expand vocabulary and enhance grammatical competence. Within this context, audiovisual translation (AVT) emerges as a crucial medium capable of cultivating learners’ mediation abilities and nurturing an appreciation for inclusive environments.

AVT modes could be integrated into language learning to enrich the educational experience (Talaván, 2020). In this context, the field of AVT has experienced remarkable growth in recent decades, with a particular focus on its potential in language education, especially with the emergence of didactic audiovisual translation (DAT). AVT encompasses five primary modes: subtitling, dubbing, voiceover, audio-description, and subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing (SDH). While subtitling and dubbing have historically been prevalent, the educational potential of the latter three modes has garnered significant attention from language educators and researchers. The significance of this can be observed through various research projects financially supported by European and Spanish authorities, which have substantially contributed to comprehending DAT’s adaptability in language acquisition. Examples include the Learning via Subtitling (LeViS, 2006-2008) project, which focused on subtitling for foreign language learning (FLL). Another noteworthy initiative is Clipflair (2011-2014), which aimed to create innovative exercises and activities, incorporating revoicing through a social networking web platform. Intralingual Dubbing to Improve Oral Skills (iDub, 2014) assessed the potential of intralingual dubbing to enhance speaking skills among university students. PluriTAV (2017-2019) also explored the benefits of a multilingual approach in teaching foreign languages. The innovative TRADILEX (2020-2023) project, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, developed a comprehensive DAT sequence integrating all five AVT modalities. This pioneering initiative, led by experts in AVT and foreign language teaching, aimed to enhance learners’ communication, reception, production, and mediation skills holistically. Leveraging technology, this study evaluated learners’ progress in English language proficiency through diverse AVT tasks, culminating in an extensive exploration of DAT’s transformative potential.

The present paper is situated within the TRADILEX project and constitutes a quasi-experimental analysis. This study focuses on the responses of 172 students participating in the autonomous learning sequence designed within the TRADILEX project. The principal objective is to analyse the factors influencing the successful completion of TRADILEX tasks during the course period, thereby identifying strengths and weaknesses in the learning process. To address this objective, the study formulated the following research questions:

1. What is the learners’ previous experience with DAT?

2. Upon completion of the learning sequences, which specific DAT modes did students perceive as most effectively developed in the tasks?

3. Which tasks presented greater challenges in terms of technical complexity, translation skills, and clarity of the instructions and guidelines provided to complete the TRADILEX sequence?

4. How do learners assess the implementation of the TRADILEX sequence?

Theoretical Background

The developmental trajectory of DAT delineates four distinctive decades, with the latter two marking a pinnacle for this approach. Its inception traces back to the 1980s when scholars initially explored subtitles as a passive educational tool in classrooms. Prominent figures like Price (1983) and Vanderplank (1988) associated acquiring a second language with the incorporation of subtitles. Subsequent decades revealed a progression in research, especially during the 2000s, wherein subtitling remained a predominant focus. While much of the scholarship concentrated on subtitling as a passive medium (Williams & Thorne, 2000), this era also witnessed an emergence of active student involvement in generating their own subtitles within educational settings. Sokoli (2006) devised tools for active learning tasks centred around active subtitling, signalling a shift towards learner engagement. Similarly, Talaván (2006) employed computer-assisted activities based on subtitles to augment writing and oral proficiency among business students.

The 2010s marked a significant development in DAT research, redirecting attention towards active participation by students within the learning process. Scholars pivoted towards exploring active AVT modalities in educational environments, introducing novel avenues for AVT investigation. Danan (2010) delved into the pedagogical use of dubbing, while Lertola (2015) outlined guidelines for educators in using subtitling as an active classroom tool. Ibáñez Moreno and Vermeulen (2013) integrated audio-description in their research to enhance lexical and phraseological competence in FLL. Noteworthy publications like the edited volume by Incalcaterra McLoughlin et al. (2020) showcased international case studies emphasising learner-centric learning and diverse pedagogical prospects extending beyond language skill reinforcement.

DAT has evolved into an active tool wherein students create AVT material, placing them at the focal point of their learning experience. Scholars increasingly acknowledge the potential of this burgeoning field and how all AVT modalities contribute as valuable tools in acquiring and enhancing English as a foreign language (EFL). Recent studies by Bolaños-García-Escribano and Navarrete (2022), Fernández-Costales et al. (2023), Lertola (2021), Plaza Lara and Fernández Costales (2022), and Plaza Lara and Gonzalo Llera (2022) have concentrated on the didactic application of specific AVT modes, highlighting their benefits in language learning. Furthermore, DAT has been examined in conjunction with methodologies like the flipped classroom or content and language-integrated learning (Talaván & Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2023), expanding its potential beyond educational contexts, such as speech and language therapy (Fernández-Costales et al., 2022).

The TRADILEX Project and Learning Sequence

The research team of the TRADILEX project developed a sequence for intermediate English language level adult learners’ autonomous online learning within non-formal educational settings, specifically for the B1 and B2 levels stated in the Common European Framework for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). As Fernández-Costales et al. (2023) articulated, the project’s research methodology was pre-experimental and fell within the framework of a Spanish national research, development, and innovation (I+D+I) initiative conducted between 2020 and 2023.

The project implementation unfolded through nine meticulously structured phases, as discussed by Fernández-Costales et al. (2023). It began with the initiation phase, involving the formation of the research group and an extensive literature review. In the subsequent methodological proposal design phase, the overall research framework was developed, and modern language centres for intervention were selected. The task design and network establishment phase saw the creation of 30 tailored lesson plans for B1 and B2 levels and a collaborative network with affiliated language centres. Integral to this phase was the development of research tools, including initial and final integrated skills tests (ITIS and FITIS) and questionnaires for teachers and students, serving as analytical instruments. The pre-experimental study phase involved teacher training sessions, ensuring rigorous implementation, and conducting studies in various centres, accompanied by pilot study data collection. This phase continued into further data collection and analysis, followed by the study closure phase, focusing on completing the study and initiating data analysis, particularly exploring students’ perceptions of the didactic proposal. The subsequent platform design phase centred on creating a virtual platform (https://www.tradilex.es/) hosting the 30 lesson plans, facilitating access for students and educators, and digitising lesson plans for online use. Finally, the project transitioned into the piloting, transfer, and dissemination phase, encompassing platform pilots with selected institutions and exploring transfer possibilities to diverse contexts.

The findings of various analyses conducted as part of this research endeavour were disseminated in reputable academic journals and publications over the past three years (Couto-Cantero et al., 2021; Navarrete & Bolaños-García-Escribano, 2022; Plaza-Lara & Bobadilla-Pérez, 2024; Sánchez-Requena et al., 2022; Talaván & Lertola, 2022; Talaván & Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2022). Fernández-Costales et al. (2023) conducted a comprehensive study providing insights into the overall project implementation. The primary conclusion drawn from the study was the significant improvement in participants’ English language skills.

The learning sequence itself comprises 15 structured DAT lesson plans, with three plans allocated to each AVT mode. Within the TRADILEX sequence, considerable emphasis was placed on defining learning outcomes and providing a scaffolded approach (Sánchez-Requena et al., 2022). Learners were actively engaged in all four language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Grammar and vocabulary acquisition were seamlessly integrated into specific tasks, fostering meaningful learning experiences. Integral to this approach were information and communication technology skills, as AVT demanded learners to proficiently navigate digital applications and programs tailored to each mode (Hornero Corisco et al., 2023).

In their study, Fernández-Costales et al. (2023) detailed the implementation process of the TRADILEX sequence, which forms the focal point of this study from the students’ perspective. According to the authors, the process was standardised across all institutions. Each institution received a comprehensive file containing instructions for student course registration in the virtual learning space. Each institution was assigned teaching staff and an individual from the research group who supervised the intervention’s correct execution. Weekly follow-up sessions were conducted, and communication primarily occurred through course forums and email. The courses were structured as follows:

• Course presentation and initial tasks: We provided a general guide in PDF format and interactive support outlining the main steps, along with access to the pre-test and initial questionnaire.

• Lesson plans: Five blocks, each featuring three lesson plans for different DAT modes, were offered. Each was accompanied by an introductory guide and interactive support for initial steps and mode-specific guidelines. Software tutorials were included for various applications such as Aegisub and Screencastify. Each modality’s difficulty level increased incrementally, promoting sequential learning for an enhanced learning process. Each lesson plan centred around a preselected short film excerpt tailored to achieve specific didactic objectives.

• Final tasks: At the intervention’s conclusion, students were required to complete a final questionnaire and an integrated skills test to assess their progress.

Method

The present research methodology is based on data collected through two instruments, employing a mixed-method approach. This approach used initial and final questionnaires as assessment tools, capturing both quantitative and qualitative data concerning students’ perceptions of DAT. The collected data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software and QDA Miner Lite for qualitative data.

Analysis

To ascertain learners’ prior familiarity with AVT, we used questions 13, 14, and 15 from the initial questionnaire. Questions 13 and 14 sought to ascertain whether students had engaged in AVT activities to enhance their English skills within and outside the classroom. In both scenarios, using audiovisual material was reported at a low percentage (7 % within and 13 % outside). Further inquiry into students’ practices revealed that the predominant method in class involved using subtitles to aid comprehension. Similarly, students who employed audiovisual modalities outside the classroom frequently used subtitles to enhance their understanding of audiovisual content.

The 15 Likert Scale items (outlined in Table 1) were transformed to facilitate analysis. Consequently, a numerical scale was established (1 = totally agree, 2 = partly agree, 3 = agree, 4 = disagree, 5 = partly disagree, and 6 = totally disagree). Through this transformation and subsequent descriptive statistical analysis, it was possible to determine that participants’ prior knowledge and future expectations of AVT were at an intermediate level (M = 81.44), with a minimum score of 54, a maximum score of 126, and a deviation of 75%.

The subsequent analysis through descriptive statistics of the 15 items, in isolation, revealed notable insights. Before the course, an overwhelming 98% of students expressed interest in participating in the project, indicating high expectations. While a substantial majority (70%) claimed familiarity with AVT, particularly agreeing, partially agreeing, or totally agreeing with the second statement, the awareness of different AVT modalities varied. Approximately half of the students were acquainted with subtitling, dubbing, and voice-over, with 52% agreeing, partially agreeing, or totally agreeing, in contrast to the 40% of students’ familiarity with audio-description and SDH.

The subsequent two items addressed students’ reflections on their proficiency with new technologies and creativity. A significant proportion (85%) perceived themselves as proficient with technology, a result expected given that most students fell within the 18 to 30 age range (79.7%). Additionally, a substantial number (80%) considered themselves creative, potentially associated with the learning environment of a language centre. Students also tended to rely more on audiovisual material for learning English outside the classroom (74%) than within (62%). Nevertheless, the high agreement rates justified the increased use of audiovisual materials for language learning.

Finally, when queried about whether they believed AVT tasks could contribute to improving their English proficiency, an overwhelming majority of students agreed, with only 4% expressing disagreement. Similar percentages were observed when individual skill enhancement was assessed separately. The highest agreement rates were noted when students were asked about more traditional skills such as listening, writing, and reading, likely attributed to their familiarity with these skills when learning a new language.

The final questionnaire employed specific questions from Section 1: Process to ascertain the factors influencing task completion at each stage of the process. Subsequently, students’ responses were compiled and analysed using descriptive statistical analysis. Additionally, open-ended questions underwent coding and were analysed using QDA Miner Lite to augment the understanding of students’ responses.

A discernible inclination towards using traditional modalities for English learning emerged among students. Notably, 48 students (27.9%) selected subtitling as their primary preference, while 44 students (25.6%) opted for dubbing. Despite the continued popularity of traditional modalities, alternative options such as audio-description and SDH gained prominence as second choices. Specifically, 36 students (20.9%) and 46 students (26.7%) favoured audio-description and SDH, respectively, as their secondary preferences. Open-ended questions accompanying these inquiries aimed to delve deeper into students’ choices. Their primary justifications were categorised according to their first and second choices—subtitling and dubbing, and audio-description and SDH, respectively—and were coded accordingly (see Table 2).

As illustrated in Figure 1, students predominantly selected dubbing and subtitling, perceiving these modalities as the most complete. Their observations highlighted the usefulness of these approaches in enhancing oral production and reception, facilitating vocabulary acquisition, and improving both written production and reception. In terms of motivation, students believed that traditional modalities were enjoyable, interesting, and easily comprehensible. The familiarity with these modalities before the beginning of the project contributed to their perceived ease and commonality.

Figure 1: Reasons for Using Subtitling and Dubbing

Figure 2 delineates the student preference for audio-description and SDH as their second most favoured modalities, primarily attributed to accessibility considerations. Student comments underscored the perceived utility and necessity of these modalities. Furthermore, students justified their preference by asserting that these modalities offer benefits akin to standard subtitling and dubbing, encompassing listening, speaking, and writing enhancements. Additionally, these modalities were deemed conducive to acquiring specific vocabulary, as they require students not only to listen and comprehend but also to interpret the content presented in the video. In terms of motivational factors, students articulated that audio-description and SDH were perceived as easy and enjoyable and provided them with the freedom to improvise.

Figure 2: Reasons for Using Audio-Description and Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing

When queried about the most technically challenging AVT task, students exhibited a distinct aversion to voicing modalities, particularly dubbing (35.5%) and voice-over (36%). However, a notable finding emerged when assessing the perceived complexity of the translation process in AVT tasks. A significant portion of the participants, specifically 62 individuals (36%), indicated that they did not encounter substantial difficulties in this domain, as evidenced by selecting the “none” option.

A qualitative analysis was conducted to delve deeper into students’ responses. Select participant responses were chosen, and descriptive codes were applied and categorised into voice-over and dubbing for Question 3 and none for Question 4, which asked students to identify the most challenging AVT task in technical and translation terms, respectively. Thus, the codes for Question 3 were as follows:

• Dubbing: script and performance and time-consuming

• Voice-over: paraphrasing, software, fluency, and voices

• Voicing: synchronisation, timing, and creativity

As depicted in Figure 3, various challenges are shared by both modalities (dubbing and voice-over) under consideration in Question 3, specifically about synchronisation and timing, challenges primarily associated with voicing modalities. Simultaneously, students perceive dubbing as the most time-consuming task throughout the process, as indicated by their comments. However, a significant issue encountered during voice-over pertains to the software. Participants expressed frustration regarding their inability to navigate the software (Screencastify) despite having access to tutorials and reported challenges with installation on Apple devices. Additionally, they highlight the difficulty of hearing their own voices alongside the character’s voices, a circumstance absent in dubbing, where characters’ voices are muted.

Figure 3: Students’ Technical Dubbing and Voice-Over Challenges

It is essential to note a distinct differentiation in the methodologies employed for dubbing and voice-over tasks. In dubbing, the process entails script creation and interpretation, while voice-over involves paraphrasing. Furthermore, in dubbing, this challenge is not considered in isolation—as it consistently accompanies additional elements like timing—while in voice-over, paraphrasing is perceived as a distinct difficulty.

In Question 4, the responses regarding the absence of difficulty in translation stood out as the most prominent. As per the feedback from the students, six descriptive codes were assigned to these responses (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Translation Process Difficulties

Most students reported that the level of translation tasks was similar across all modalities (42.6%) or encountered the same difficulties in all (25.5%). Meanwhile, students also emphasised that the difficulty level was not significant due to the employment of external aids, such as dictionaries or the video itself, to grasp context or enhance their vocabulary.

Apart from audiovisual translation, additional challenges encompassed issues with technology and voice synchronisation in the voicing tasks. Finally, some students were unaware they were translating during all tasks except the last one, which was the only translation between L2 and L1.

In response to Question 5, students were tasked with evaluating the clarity of different facets of the project (see Table 3) on a scale ranging from very confusing to perfectly clear. Most students deemed the educational platform, the overall instructions for the project, and the instructions within the lesson plans as perfectly clear. This indicates a high level of accuracy in the project planning. Furthermore, the incidence of “confusing” responses was generally low, with the clarity of the enrolment process standing out, as indicated by 26 students.

In response to Question 6, which inquired about students’ interactions with their teacher, the project coordinator at their institution, and fellow students, it was observed that, given the individual nature of the project, a significant proportion of students (39.2%) reported having no contact with other colleagues. In interactions with teachers or the project coordinator, the level of contact remained relatively low. Notably, teachers were the individuals with whom students had engaged more frequently, with 62 students (36.3%) indicating “contact a couple of times.”

Concerning the average time allocated to each lesson plan, the predominant response was “between 60 and 90 minutes,” chosen by 84 students (49.1%), aligning with the anticipated time frame during lesson plan preparation. When evaluating the overall duration of the entire project, 114 students (66.7%) perceived it as adequate, while 51 students (29.8%) deemed it excessive, a consideration worth noting.

In the process section, the following question (see Table 4) presented students with six statements that they had to rate from totally disagree to totally agree. Most students expressed satisfaction with their work on the AVT tasks, as evidenced by 91.7% of students agreeing, strongly agreeing, or totally agreeing with the statement. Additionally, a substantial number of students (76%) acknowledged using the provided resources by claiming to have corrected their results with the keys. Regarding their perceived progress, a significant portion (92.9%) agreed, strongly agreed, or totally agreed. Furthermore, students endorsed the instructional approach, stating that the sequencing of lesson plans and, consequently, of the AVT modalities was appropriate.

Addressing the topic of placement tests, most students (76%) agreed, strongly agreed, or totally agreed that the pre- and post-tests facilitated awareness of their progress throughout the course. However, opinions on the necessity of placement tests were more varied, with 92 students considering them necessary and 79 students suggesting they could be dispensable. Nevertheless, 114 students thought that the duration of the project (15 lesson plans plus the placement tests and questionnaires in 5 months) had been adequate, reinforcing the idea of a good planning of the project.

Discussion

The initial phase addressed the first research question, focusing on acquiring insights into learners’ existing knowledge and experiences regarding AVT and its potential in language learning. Methodologically, an initial questionnaire was strategically employed to gather pertinent information systematically. Specifically, the questionnaire aimed to capture insights into learners’ familiarity with distinct AVT modes and their potential impact on understanding and embracing the TRADILEX methodology.

Upon probing their initial perceptions about how AVT could enhance language skills, most students (approximately 96%) acknowledged its potential in improving fundamental language learning skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar and vocabulary acquisition. However, articulating specific expectations regarding mediation and intercultural competence proved challenging for students, suggesting a gap in comprehending the connection between these skills and language learning. This divergence in perception contrasts with the perspectives of teachers participating in the TRADILEX project, as outlined by Sánchez-Requena et al. (2022), who recognised the benefits of DAT, including mediation and interculturality. Despite this recognition, teachers expressed intimidation towards the technological aspects of DAT, a sentiment not shared by students, who perceived themselves as technologically proficient. Additionally, discussions on the potential of AVT in fostering creativity (Talaván, 2019) did not resonate with students, as they did not perceive themselves as creative individuals nor recognise DAT’s role in cultivating creativity.

The initial survey highlighted learners’ self-perceived competency with technology. However, challenges during the process emerged not in translation itself but in synchronisation and technical aspects, particularly with specific software programs. This initial perception is anticipated to evolve as students become more acquainted with the specific software. A similar pattern was observed in creativity, where participants initially regarded themselves as creative individuals but faced challenges in nurturing their creativity throughout the process. Notably, learners extensively used AVT materials for autonomous language learning, indicating a favourable reception of the TRADILEX approach to encourage autonomous engagement with audiovisual content.

Furthermore, findings revealed that students minimally used DAT, predominantly relying on subtitles to aid comprehension of spoken words in the target language rather than explicit language learning objectives. This observation resonates with contemporary research and the TRADILEX project framework, emphasising the potential of AVT in language learning, as highlighted in scholarly works such as Lertola (2019), Talaván (2020), and Fernández-Costales et al. (2023).

The second research question aimed to discern which specific modes of AVT were perceived by students as most effectively developed within the tasks formulated in the TRADILEX project. Despite the intention for all TRADILEX tasks to comprehensively cultivate various language skills, learners’ perceptions of each mode varied according to their familiarity with these differing methods. As anticipated, students gravitated towards subtitling and dubbing, deeming them more effective for language acquisition due to their pre-existing acquaintance. Subtitling emerged as the primary mode used, while students’ familiarity with dubbing positively influenced their perception of its potential for FLL. These AVT modes were notably effective in honing both oral and written language skills, recognised by learners as pivotal for the integrated development of linguistic competencies. In contrast, alternative modes such as audio-description and SDH held secondary positions in students’ perceptions. These findings resonate with prior scholarly investigations into language learning facilitated by dubbing and subtitling (Danan, 2010; Lertola, 2015; Price, 1983; Sokoli, 2006; Talaván, 2006; Vanderplank, 1988; Williams & Thorne, 2000).

The prominence of dubbing and subtitling in the 1980s stemmed primarily from technological constraints. Yet, the evolution of digital technology expanded AVT to encompass diverse modalities like audio-description and SDH, as later explored by scholars (Ibáñez Moreno & Vermeulen, 2013). Learners expressed ease and enjoyment with these latter modes, contributing to reduced anxiety levels and heightened motivation. Audio-description and SDH involve translating paralinguistic elements, posing challenges yet intriguing learners as it enhances their sensitivity to diverse cultural nuances. This aligns with Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis (1985), emphasising the critical role of an emotionally conducive state in successful second language acquisition (Fernández-Costales, 2021).

Significantly, the under-recognition of the learning potential of voice-over contrasts with positive outcomes reported in Fernández-Costales et al.’s (2023) study, attributed to learners’ initial biases against this mode. Students found voice-over technically challenging and struggled to comprehend its purpose within the AVT context, a factor also observed in the scant attention given to voice-over within the literature review on AVT. In essence, modes familiar to students are perceived as contributors to the comprehensive development of language skills, whereas those less familiar are compartmentalised in their perceived impact on skill development.

The third research question delved into identifying the specific tasks within the TRADILEX sequence that posed notable challenges concerning technical complexity, translation skills, and the clarity of instructions and guidelines. This inquiry aimed to dissect and discern the elements of the TRADILEX methodology that presented hurdles in technical intricacies, proficiency in translation, and the comprehensibility of instructions and guidance necessary to execute the sequence successfully. According to the analysis, voicing tasks are perceived as the most challenging by learners, with blame placed on performance demands rather than competence. These activities aid the development of paralinguistic elements, which raise awareness of issues such as intonation, a crucial means of conveying meaning. Additionally, the difficulty of such tasks increases learner sensitivity to the significance of paralinguistic elements in acquiring a new language. It is worth noting that the two methods mentioned, dubbing and voice-over, are essential for improving intonation, which is relevant as, historically, pronunciation has been an overlooked area when analysing and planning foreign language teaching (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996).

During the process, it became evident that learners only interpreted interlingual translation (L2-L1) as translation, especially in the most familiar modes. The learners may be averse to voicing tasks, like voice-over, which they perceive as technically challenging. It is worth noting that whilst undertaking the process, learners were unaware of the paralinguistic elements implicated in translation. Only one learner correlated these elements with sociolinguistic aspects by reflecting on and interpreting the translation of these elements:

It has been equally challenging because my difficulty has not been the type of AVT being performed but the translation process itself, that is, adapting one reality (the reality perceived through English) to another (the reality perceived and understood from Spanish). So, it is more of a sociolinguistic issue.¹

Finally, one of the most significant concerns when discussing the technical complexity of the translations is technological competence, highlighting that the students did not know the software at the beginning. Upon analysing the process, it becomes evident that what was viewed initially as an obstacle is not so in the subsequent activity, as the tool usage experience indicates that once users become accustomed to it, it is not difficult to work with, as can be seen in articles such as Hornero Corisco et al.’s (2023), which contradicts the teachers’ opinions on the use of technology highlighted in Sanchez-Requena et al. (2022). Although students may encounter challenges when first using new technologies, their technological literacy and age enable them to overcome these issues. Therefore, difficulty with technology is not a trigger for dropping out of the course and not wanting to continue but rather a simple handicap that students can overcome within the methodology. This is further substantiated by Plaza-Lara and Bobadilla-Pérez’s (2024) analysis, which identifies external factors as the primary cause of the dropout rate rather than technological factors inherent in the TRADILEX sequence implementation. These external elements include voluntary participation and lack of time on the part of the participants.

The final research question centres on learners’ assessment regarding the execution and implementation of the TRADILEX sequence. This investigation aimed to capture the perspectives of learners on the practical application and execution of the TRADILEX methodology, seeking their evaluations and feedback on various aspects detailed in Questions 6 to 9 of the final questionnaire. Most students reported satisfaction with DAT implementation in their language learning, which suggests a positive experience with the TRADILEX methodology. Furthermore, most learners demonstrated an active engagement with the course material by using the provided resources. A significant proportion of students reported notable progress throughout the course, contributing to a positive evaluation of their learning experience. The approval of the teaching methodology was evident in the lesson plan sequencing and the implementation of AVT modalities, with students expressing their concurrence with the appropriateness of the chosen approach.

Regarding the placement tests, most students affirmed that the pre- and post-tests aided them in tracking their progress during the course. Nevertheless, there was a discrepancy in opinions regarding the indispensability of these tests, with a considerable number of students arguing that the course could be completed without them. Thus, this possibly derives from students’ distaste for language tests. In this line, some findings suggest that instructors should recognise that quizzes, despite their educational benefits, may induce more stress than other alternative learning activities (Yang et al., 2023). Moreover, a few students admitted to not using the keys after the units, indicating that they may have completed the assignment but preferred to have it reviewed by a teacher instead of independently putting in the effort.

Despite these discrepancies, many students felt the overall project duration was appropriate. This promising evaluation indicates the successful planning and execution of the project, which reinforces the idea that this is a well-organised educational initiative. The students also recognised that, due to the design of each lesson plan, their results progressed and that their outcomes improved over the course of the units, which means that the lesson plans were well-designed and the sequences were correct.

Conclusion

This study’s focus on the TRADILEX methodology navigated through several research questions, illuminating various facets of student engagement, perceptions, challenges encountered, and overall assessment of the implemented sequence. The principal aim of this investigation lies in examining the procedural implementation of the TRADILEX learning sequence. The initial inquiry underscored students’ limited awareness of AVT modes, marking the commencement of the study with an indication of minimal enthusiasm among participants. Despite this, a resounding acknowledgement of the potential of AVT tasks to enhance essential language learning skills emerged.

Interestingly, contrasts arose between student and teacher perceptions within the TRADILEX project, revealing divergent viewpoints on the benefits and challenges of DAT. While teachers recognised its benefits, particularly in mediation and interculturality, they expressed concerns regarding technological complexities, unlike the students, who perceived themselves as technologically adept. Age appeared as a potential influencer, with students viewing technology as a motivator for engagement.

Throughout the process, students showcased a shift in perception. They initially considered themselves technologically competent but encountered synchronisation and software challenges. However, as they became familiar with specific software, this initial barrier diminished, fostering a positive reception of the TRADILEX approach.

In terms of AVT modes, subtitling and dubbing were perceived as the most effective for language acquisition due to students’ familiarity and were deemed conducive to developing oral and written language skills in an integrated manner. Conversely, voice-over, which was less recognised and understood initially, faced biases and challenges from students, contrasting with positive outcomes reported in other studies. Regarding technical complexities, voicing tasks emerged as the most challenging, influencing learners’ sensitivity to paralinguistic elements like intonation. The struggle with such tasks stemmed more from performance demands than translation competence. Learners tended to interpret interlingual translation mainly in familiar modalities.

Despite challenges, most students expressed satisfaction with DAT implementation, actively engaging with course material and reporting progress. However, discrepancies existed regarding the necessity of placement tests and independent use of review keys, highlighting nuanced perspectives on assessment methodologies.

While this study presents valuable insights into the efficacy of the TRADILEX methodology in AVT for language learning, it is essential to acknowledge certain limitations. The sample size, though informative, might not fully represent diverse educational contexts, potentially limiting the generalisability of findings. Future research endeavours could address these limitations by conducting larger-scale studies encompassing a more diverse participant pool across varied educational settings. Additionally, longitudinal studies tracking learners’ progress over an extended period could shed light on the long-term effectiveness of AVT methodologies in language acquisition. Investigating the influence of cultural and contextual factors on learners’ engagement stands as a promising avenue to enhance our understanding of optimal AVT practices in language education.

In summary, the TRADILEX sequence evoked varied student responses, from initial hesitancy to eventual appreciation. The study delineates the evolving landscape of student engagement, challenges encountered, and overall positive evaluation, affirming the methodology’s potential effectiveness in language learning while shedding light on areas warranting further exploration and refinement.